[en] Trypanosoma evansi is an extracellular parasite found in the blood and tissues of mammals, mainly causing anaemia, immune depression and central nervous system disorders. Contrary to other African trypanosomes, T. evansi is mechanically transmitted and thus presents a worldwide distribution. This review aims at summarizing clinical and pathological data about T. evansi infections in its various hosts. It presents the actual knowledge on pathogenesis and the recent development of which open new ways for infection control.
Disciplines :
Veterinary medicine & animal health
Author, co-author :
Antoine-Moussiaux, Nicolas ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de productions animales > Biostatistique, économie, sélection animale
Desmecht, Daniel ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de morphologie et pathologie > Pathologie spéciale et autopsies
Al-Qarawi A.A., Abdel-Rahman H., Elmougy S.A. Impairment in the pituitary-thyroid axis of the Camelus dromedarius infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr., 2001, 108, 172-174.
Al-Qarawi A.A., Omar H.M., Abdel-Rahman H.A., EL-Mougy S.A., El-Belely M.S. Trypanosomiasis-induced infertility in dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) bulls: changes in plasma steroids concentration and semen characteristics. Anim. Reprod. Sci., 2004, 84, 73-82.
Al-Rawashdeh O.F., Sharif L.A., Al-Qudah K., Al-Ani F.K. Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels in Jordan. Rev. Elev. Méd. Vet. Pays Trop., 1999, 52, 233-237.
Antoine-Moussiaux N., Faye B., Vias G.F. Tuareg ethnodiagnostic skill of camel diseases in Agadez area (Niger). J. Camel Pract. Res., 2005, 12, 85-93.
Antoine-Moussiaux N., Magez S., Desmecht D. Contributions of the mouse model to understanding African trypanosomiasis. Trends Parasitol., 2008, 24, 411-418.
Areekit S., Singhaphan P., Kanjanavas P., Khuchareontaworn S., Sriyapai T., Pakpitcharoen A., Chansiri K. Genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi in beef cattle based on internal transcribed spacer region. Infect. Genet. Evol., 2008, 8, 484-488.
Assoku R. Immunological studies of the mechanism of anaemia in experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in rats. Int. J. Parasitol., 1975, 5, 137-145.
Atarhouch T., Rami M., Bendahman M.N., Dakkak A. Camel trypanosomosis in Morocco 1: results of a first epidemiological survey. Vet. Parasitol., 2003, 111, 277-286.
Baetselier P., Namangala B., Noël W., Brys L., Pays E., Beschin A. Alternative versus classical macrophage activation during experimental African trypanosomosis. Int. J. Parasitol., 2001, 31, 575-587.
Baral T., de Baetselier P., Brombacher F., Magez S. Control of Trypanosoma evansi infection is IgM mediated and does not require a type I inflammatory response. J. Infect. Dis., 2007, 195, 1513-1520.
Biswas D., Choudhury A., Misra K. Histopathology of Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) evansi infection in bandicoot rat. I. visceral organs. Exp. Parasitol., 2001, 99, 148-159.
Blum J.A., Schmid C., Hatz C., Kazumba L., Mangoni P., Rutishauser J., La Torre A., Burri C. Sleeping glands? - The role of endocrine disorders in sleeping sickness (Tb. gambiense human African trypanosomiasis). Acta Trop. 2007, 104, 16-24.
Boid R., Hunter A.G., Jones T.W., Ross C.A., Sutherland D., Luckins, A.G. Trypanosomosis research at the Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine (CTVM) 1970 to 1995. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 1996, 28, 5-22.
Boid R., Mahmoud M.M., Gray, A.R. Changes in the levels of serum enzymes in dromedary camels infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Res. Vet. Sci., 1980, 28, 336-340.
Chaudhary Z.I., Iqbal J. Incidence, biochemical and haematological alterations induced by natural trypanosomosis in racing dromedary camels. Acta Trop., 2000, 77, 209-213.
Damayanti R., Graydon R.J., Ladds P.W. The pathology of experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in the Indonesian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). J. Comp. Pathol., 1994, 110, 237-252.
de Oliveira L.A.N., da Silva Santos S., Herrera H.M., Gama C., Cupolillo E., Jansen A.M., Fernandes O. Trypanosoma evansi: Molecular homogeneity as inferred by phenetical analysis of ribosomal internal transcribed spacers DNA of an eclectic parasite. Exp. Parasitol., 2008, 118, 402-407.
Desquesnes M., Bossard G., Patrel D., Herder S., Patout O., Lepetitcolin E., Thevenon S., Berthier D., Pavlovic D., Brugidou R., Jacquiet P., Schelcher F., Faye B., Touratier L., Cuny G. First outbreak of Trypanosoma evansi in camels in metropolitan France. Vet. Rec., 2008, 162, 750-752.
Dirie M.F., Abdurahman O. Observations on little known diseases of camels (Camelus dromedarius) in the Horn of Africa. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 2003, 22, 1043-1049.
El-Sayed N., Myler P., Blandin G., Berriman M., Crabtree J., Aggarwal G., Caler E., Renauld H., Worthey E., Hertz-Fowler C., Ghedin E., Peacock C., Bartholomeu D., Haas B., Tran A., Wortman J., Alsmark U., Angiuoli S., Anupama A., Badger J., Bringaud F., Cadag E., Carlton J., Cerqueira G., Creasy T., Delcher A., Djikeng A., Embley T., Hauser C., Ivens A., Kummerfeld S., Pereira-Leal J., Nilsson D., Peterson J., Salzberg S., Shallom J., Silva J., Sundaram J., Westenberger S., White O., Melville S., Donelson J., Andersson B., Stuart K., Hall N. Comparative genomics of trypanosomatid parasitic protozoa. Science, 2005, 309, 404-409.
Finol H.J., Boada-Sucre A., Rossi M., Tejero F. Skeletal muscle ultrastructural pathology in mice infected with Trypanosoma evansi. J. Submicrosc. Cytol. Pathol., 2001, 33, 65-71.
Geetika R., Gupta M.L., Kumar D., Swarnkar C.P. Haemato-biochemical studies of Trypanosoma evansi in paroxysmal and non-paroxysmal phases of infection in albino rats. Int. J. Anim. Sci., 2000, 15, 225-231.
Gutierrez C., Corbera J.A., Juste M.C., Doreste F., Morales I. An outbreak of abortions and high neonatal mortality associated with Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels in the Canary Islands. Vet. Parasitol., 2005, 130, 163-168.
Haroun E.M., Magzoub M., Mahmoud O.M., Al-Qarawi A.A., Al-Hawas A.M., Omer O.H. Some clinico-pathological aspects of experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in Najdi camels (Camelus dromedarius). J. Camel Pract. Res., 2000, 7, 101-106.
Herrera H.M., Alessi A.C., Marques L.C., Santana A.E., Aquino L., Menezes R.F., Moraes M.A.V., Machado R.Z. Experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in South American coati (Nasua nasua): hematological, biochemical and histopathological changes. Acta Trop., 2002, 81, 203-210.
Hilali M., Abdel-Gawad A., Nassar A., Abdel-Wahab A. Hematological and biochemical changes in water buffalo calves (Bubalus bubalis) infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet. Parasitol., 2006, 139, 237-243.
Holland W., Do T., Huong N., Dung N., Thanh N., Vercruysse J., Goddeeris B. The effect of Trypanosoma evansi infection on pig performance and vaccination against classical swine fever. Vet. Parasitol., 2003, 111, 115-123.
Holland W., My L., Dung T., Thanh N., Tam P., Vercruysse J., Goddeeris B. The influence of Trypanosoma evansi infection on the immuno-responsiveness of experimentally infected water buffaloes. Vet. Parasitol., 2001, 102, 225-234.
Horchner F., Schonefeld A., Wust B. Experimental infection of horses with Trypanosoma evansi.1. Parasitological and clinical results. Ann. Soc. Belge Med. Trop., 1983, 63, 127-135.
Jensen R.E., Simpson L., Englund P.T. What happens when Trypanosoma brucei leaves Africa. Trends Parasitol., 2008, doi:10.1016/j.pt.2008.06.007
Joshi P.P., Chaudhari A., Shegokar V.R., Powar R.M., Dani V.S., Sornalwar A.M., Jannin J., Truc P. Treatment and follow-up of the first case of human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2006, 100, 989-991.
Joshi S.S., Bhoop S., Anantwar L.G., Awaz K.B., Rajguru D.N., Ali M.S. Clinico-pathology and biochemical alterations in Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in buffaloes. J. Bombay Vet. Coll., 1993, 4, 33-35.
Joshi S.S., Bhoopsingh A. Clinico-pathology and bio-chemical alterations in clinical cases of Trypanosoma evansi infection in buffaloes and effect of treatment thereon. Indian Vet. J., 2001, 78, 643-644.
Khuchareontaworn,S., Singhaphan P., Viseshakul N., Chansiri K. Genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi in Buffalo based on internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions. J. Vet. Med. Sci., 2007, 69, 487-493.
Lai D.H., Hashimi H., Lun Z.R., Ayala F.J., Luke J. Adaptations of Trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast DNA: Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi are petite mutants of T-brucei. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2008, 105, 1999-2004.
Li F., Gasser R., Zheng J., Claes F., Zhu X., Lun Z. Application of multiple DNA fingerprinting techniques to study the genetic relationships among three members of the subgenus Trypanozoon (Protozoa: Trypanosomatidae). Mol. Cell. Probes, 2005, 19, 400-407.
Lohr K.F., Pholpark S., Siriwan P., Sirikul L., Srikitjakarn N., Upatoom N., Leidl K., Staak C. Trypanosoma evansi infection, a frequent cause of abortion in buffaloes. In: Kuil H., Paling R.W., Huhn J.E., Livestock production and diseases in the Tropics: proceedings of the 5th International Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 18-22 August 1986, 71-72.
Losos G.J., Ikede B.O. Review of pathology of diseases in domestic and laboratory animals caused by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei, T. rhodesiense and T. gambiense. Vet. Pathol., 1972, 9 Suppl., 71 p.
Macleod A., Turner C., Tait A. The detection of geographical substructuring of Trypanosoma brucei populations by the analysis of minisatellite polymorphisms. Parasitology, 2001, 123, 475-482.
Magez S., Stijlemans B., Radwanska M., Pays E., Ferguson M., de Baetselier P. The glycosyl-inositol-phosphate and dimyristoylglycerol moieties of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor of the trypanosome variant-specific surface glycoprotein are distinct macrophage-activating factors. J. Immunol., 1998, 160, 1949-1956.
Magez S., Truyens C., Merimi M., Radwanska M., Stijlemans B., Brouckaert P., Brombacher F., Pays E., de Baetselier P. P75 tumor necrosis factor-receptor shedding occurs as a protective host response during African trypanosomiasis. J. Infect. Dis., 2004, 189, 527-539.
Mahmoud M.M., Gray A.R. Trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma evansi (Steel, 1885) Balbiani, 1888: review of recent research. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 1980, 12, 35-47.
Mansfield J., Paulnock D. Regulation of innate and acquired immunity in African trypanosomiasis. Parasite Immunol., 2005, 27, 361-371.
Menezes V.T.D., Queiroz A.O., Gomes M.A.M., Marques M.A.P., Jansen A.M. Trypanosoma evansi in inbred and Swiss-Webster mice: distinct aspects of pathogenesis. Parasitol. Res., 2004, 94, 193-200.
Monzon C.M., Villavicencio V.I. Serum proteins in guinea pigs and horses infected with Trypanosoma evansi (Steel, 1885). Vet. Parasitol., 1990, 36, 295-301.
Morales G.A., Carreno F. The proechimys rat a potential laboratory host and model for the study of Trypanosoma evansi. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 1976, 8, 122-124.
Morales I., de Leon M., Morales M., Dalla F., Gutierrez C. Ocular lesions associated with Trypanosoma evansi in experimentally infected goats. Vet. Parasitol., 2006, 141, 325-329.
Morty R., Bulau P., Pellé R., Wilk S., Abe K. Pyroglutamyl peptidase type I from Trypanosoma brucei: a new virulence factor from African trypanosomes that de-blocks regulatory peptides in the plasma of infected hosts. Biochem. J., 2006, 394, 635-645.
Morty R., Pellé R., Vadász I., Uzcanga G., Seeger W., Bubis J. Oligopeptidase B from Trypanosoma evansi: a parasite peptidase that inactivates atrial natriuretic factor in the bloodstream of infected hosts. J. Biol. Chem., 2005, 280, 10925-10937.
Ngeranwa J.J.N., Gathumbi P.K., Mutiga E.R., Agumbah G.J.O. Pathogenesis of Trypanosoma (brucei) evansi in small East-African goats. Res. Vet. Sci., 1993, 54, 283-289.
Ngeranwa J.J.N., Mutiga E.R., Agumbah G.J.O., Gathumbi P.K., Munyua W.K. The effects of experimental Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) (brucei) evansi infection on the fertility of male goats. Vet. Res. Comm., 1991, 15, 301-308.
Njiru Z.K., Constantine C.C. Population sub-structuring among Trypanosoma evansi stocks. Parasitol. Res., 2007, 101, 1215-1224.
Njiru Z.K., Constantine C.C., Gitonga P.K., Thompson R.C.A., Reid S.A. Genetic variability of Trypanosoma evansi isolates detected by inter-simple sequence repeat anchored-PCR and microsatellite. Vet. Parasitol., 2007, 147, 51-60.
Nok A., Nzelibe H., Yako S. Trypanosoma evansi sialidase: surface localization, properties and hydrolysis of ghost red blood cells and brain cells-implications in trypanosomiasis. Z. Naturforsch., C, Biosci., 2003, 58, 594-601.
Omanwar S., Rao J.R., Singh R.K., Butchaiah G. DNA polymorphism in Trypanosoma evansi isolates defined by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-PCR. Vet. Rec., 2001, 148, 244-246.
Onah D., Hopkins J., Luckins,A. Induction of CD4+CD8+ double positive T cells and increase in CD5+ B cells in efferent lymph in sheep infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Parasite Immunol., 1998a, 20, 121-134.
Onah D., Hopkins J., Luckins A. Effects of the depletion of CD8(+) T cells and monocytes on the proliferative responses of peripheral blood leucocytes from Trypanosoma evansi-infected sheep. Vet. Parasitol., 2000, 92, 25-35.
Onah D., Wakelin D. Trypanosome-induced suppression of responses to Trichinella spiralis in vaccinated mice. Int. J. Parasitol., 1999, 29, 1017-1026.
Onah D., Wakelin D. Murine model study of the practical implication of trypanosome-induced immunosuppression in vaccine-based disease control programmes. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol., 2000, 74, 271-284.
Onah D.N., Hopkins J., Luckins A.G. Haematological changes in sheep experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Parasitol. Res., 1996, 82, 659-663.
Onah D.N., Hopkins J., Luckins A.G. Increase in CD5(+) B cells and depression of immune responses in sheep infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol., 1998b, 63, 209-222.
Onah D.N., Hopkins J., Luckins A.G. Changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations and parasite-specific antibody responses in Trypanosoma evansi infection of sheep. Parasitol. Res., 1999, 85, 263-269.
Payne R.C., Sukanto I.P., Bazeley K., Jones T.W. The effect of Trypanosoma evansi infection on the oestrus cycle of Friesian Holstein heifers. Vet. Parasitol., 1993, 51, 1-11.
Poursines Y., Pigoury L., Borde R., Bernard M. Trypanosomose expérimentale du cheval à Trypanosoma evansi (souche syrienne) I. étude clinique. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot., 1943, 36, 235-244.
Queiroz A.O., Legey A.P., Xavier S.C.C., Jansen A.M. Specific antibody levels and antigenic recognition of Wistar rats inoculated with distinct isolates of Trypanosoma evansi. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 2001, 96, 965-972.
Queiroz A.O., Nehme-Russell N.S., Brandao A., Jansen A.M. Homogeneity of Trypanosoma evansi isolates from domestic and sylvatic mammals from the Pantanal of Mato Grosso. Microbios, 2000, 103, 27-30.
Quinones-Mateu M.E., Finol H.J., Sucre L.E., Torres S.H. Muscular changes in Venezuelan wild horses naturally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. J. Comp. Pathol., 1994, 110, 79-89.
Radwanska M., Guirnalda P., de Trez C., Ryffel B., Black S., Magez S. Trypanosomiasis-induced B cell apoptosis results in loss of protective anti-parasite antibody responses and abolishment of vaccine-induced memory responses. PLoS Pathog., 2008, 4, e1000078. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000078
Raisinghani P.M., Bhatia J.S., Vyas U.K., Arya P.L., Lodha K.R. Pathology of experimental surra en camels. Indian J. Anim. Sci., 1980, 50, 966-969.
Reid S.A. Trypanosoma evansi control and containment in Australasia. Trends Parasitol., 2002, 18, 219-224.
Reina-San-Martín B., Degrave W., Rougeot C., Cosson A., Chamond N., Cordeiro-da-Silva A., Arala-Chaves M., Coutinho A., Minoprio, P. A B-cell mitogen from a pathogenic trypanosome is a eukaryotic proline racemase. Nat. Med., 2000, 6, 890-897.
Rifkin M.R., Landsberger F.R. Trypanosome variant surface glycoprotein transfer to target membranes - a model for the pathogenesis of trypanosomiasis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1990, 87, 801-805.
Rossi M., Boada-Sucre A., Finol H., Tejero F., Bello B., Aso P., Hernandez G. Ultrastructural alterations in the adrenal gland cortex of mice experimentally infected with a Venezuelan isolate of Trypanosoma evansi. J. Submicrosc. Cytol. Pathol., 1999, 31, 509-513.
Rottcher D., Schillinger D., Zweygarth E. Trypanosomiasis in the camel (Camelus dromedarius). Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 1987, 6, 463-470.
Rue M.L., Silva R.A.S., Carli G.A.D. Coagulopathy in dogs infected with Trypanosoma (Trypanozoon) evansi (Steel, 1995) Balbiani, 1888. Parasitol. al Dia, 1987, 21, 92-96.
Seidl A.F., Moraes A.S., Silva R. Trypanosoma evansi control and horse mortality in the Brazilian Pantanal. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 2001, 96, 599-602.
Seiler R.J., Omar S., Jackson A.R.B. Meningoencephalitis in naturally occuring Trypanosoma evansi infection(surra) of horses. Vet. Pathol., 1981, 18, 120-122.
Sharma D.K., Chauhan P.P.S., Agrawal R.D. Interaction between Trypanosoma evansi and Haemonchus contortus infection in goats. Vet. Parasitol., 2000, 92, 261-267.
Shehu S.A., Ibrahim N.D.G., Esievo K.A.N., Mohammed G. Neuraminidase (sialidase) activity and its role in development of anaemia in Trypanosoma evansi infection. J. Appl. Sci., 2006, 6, 2779-2783.
Silva R., Herrera H.M., Domingos L.B.D.S., Ximenes F.A., Davila A.M.R. Pathogenesis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dogs and horses: haematological and clinical aspects. Ciencia Rural, 1995, 25, 233-238.
Silva R., Sahib C.A., Delarue M., Herrera H.M., Ferreira M.J., Davila A.M.R. Coagulopathy due to Trypanosoma evansi acute infection in a dog. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. E Zootecnia, 1996, 48, 485-489.
Singh B., Joshi S.J. Epidemiology, clinico-pathology and treatment of clinical Trypanosoma evansi infection in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Indian Vet. J., 1991, 68, 975-979.
Uche U.E., Jones T.W. Complement (C3) levels and activation in rabbits experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol., 1992a, 86, 475-480.
Uche U.E., Jones T.W. Pathology of experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in rabbits. J. Comp. Pathol., 1992b, 106, 299-309.
Uche U.E., Jones T.W. Effect of complement (C3) depletion on the generation of memory in rabbits primed with antigens of Trypanosoma evansi. Vet. Parasitol., 1993, 47, 205-213.
Valli V., Mills J. The quantitation of Trypanosoma congolense in calves. 1. Hematological changes. Tropenmed. Parasitol., 1980, 31, 215-231.
Vanhollebeke B., Truc P., Poelvoorde P., Pays A., Joshi P.P., Katti R., Jannin J.G., Pays E. Brief report: human Trypanosoma evansi infection linked to a lack of apolipoprotein L-I. N. Engl. J. Med., 2006, 355, 2752-2756.
Verma B.B., Gautam O.P. Observations on pathological changes in experimental surra in bovines. Indian Vet. J., 1979, 56, 13.
Vittoz R. Prophylaxie du surra en Asie. Bull. Off. Int. Epiz., 1955, 44, 83-106.
Wernery U., Kaaden O.R. Infectious diseases in camelids. 2nd edition. Blackwell Wissenschafts: Berlin, 2002, 404 p.