[en] Chronic migraine (CM) is a disabling neurological condition affecting 0.5-2 % of the population. In the current third edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders, medication overuse is no longer an exclusion criterion and CM is diagnosed in patients suffering from at least 15 headache days per month of which at least eight are related to migraine. CM is difficult to treat, and preventive treatment options are limited. We provide a pathogenetic model for CM, integrating the latest findings from neurophysiological and neuroimaging studies. On behalf of the Belgian Headache Society, we present a management algorithm for CM based on the international literature and adapted to the Belgian situation. Pharmacological treatment options are discussed, and recent data on transcranial and invasive neuromodulation studies in CM are reviewed. An integrated multimodal treatment programme may be beneficial to refractory patients, but at present, this approach is only supported by a limited number of observational studies and quite variable between centres.
Disciplines :
Neurology
Author, co-author :
Paemeleire, K
Louis, P
MAGIS, Delphine ; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Liège - CHU > Neurologie CHR
Vandenheede, M
Versijpt, Jean
Vandersmissen, B
SCHOENEN, Jean ; Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Liège - CHU > Neurologie CHR
Language :
English
Title :
Diagnosis, pathophysiology and management of chronic migraine: a proposal of the Belgian Headache Society.
Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society (2004) The International Classification of Headache Disorders2nd edition. Cephalalgia 24(Suppl 1):9–160
Headache Classification C, Olesen J, Bousser MG, Diener HC, Dodick D, First M, Goadsby PJ, Gobel H, Lainez MJ, Lance JW, Lipton RB, Nappi G, Sakai F, Schoenen J, Silberstein SD, Steiner TJ (2006) New appendix criteria open for a broader concept of chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 26(6):742–746
Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (2013) The international classification of headache disorders, 3rd edn (beta version). Cephalalgia 33(9):629–808
Blumenfeld AM, Varon SF, Wilcox TK, Buse DC, Kawata AK, Manack A, Goadsby PJ, Lipton RB (2011) Disability, HRQoL and resource use among chronic and episodic migraineursresults from the International Burden of Migraine Study (IBMS). Cephalalgia 31(3):301–315
Buse D, Manack A, Serrano D, Reed M, Varon S, Turkel C, Lipton R (2012) Headache impact of chronic and episodic migraineresults from the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention study. Headache 52(1):3–17
Katsarava Z, Manack A, Yoon MS, Obermann M, Becker H, Dommes P, Turkel C, Lipton RB, Diener HC (2011) Chronic migraineclassification and comparisons. Cephalalgia 31(5):520–529
Bigal ME, Serrano D, Buse D, Scher A, Stewart WF, Lipton RB (2008) Acute migraine medications and evolution from episodic to chronic migrainea longitudinal population-based study. Headache 48(8):1157–1168
Scher AI, Stewart WF, Ricci JA, Lipton RB (2003) Factors associated with the onset and remission of chronic daily headache in a population-based study. Pain 106(1–2):81–89
Manack A, Buse DC, Serrano D, Turkel CC, Lipton RB (2011) Rates, predictors, and consequences of remission from chronic migraine to episodic migraine. Neurology 76(8):711–718
Buse DC, Manack A, Serrano D, Turkel C, Lipton RB (2010) Sociodemographic and comorbidity profiles of chronic migraine and episodic migraine sufferers. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 81(4):428–432
Bigal ME, Rapoport AM, Lipton RB, Tepper SJ, Sheftell FD (2003) Assessment of migraine disability using the migraine disability assessment (MIDAS) questionnairea comparison of chronic migraine with episodic migraine. Headache 43(4):336–342
Buse DC, Silberstein SD, Manack AN, Papapetropoulos S, Lipton RB (2013) Psychiatric comorbidities of episodic and chronic migraine. J Neurol 260(8):1960–1969
Peterlin BL, Tietjen GE, Brandes JL, Rubin SM, Drexler E, Lidicker JR, Meng S (2009) Posttraumatic stress disorder in migraine. Headache 49(4):541–551
Tietjen GE, Brandes JL, Peterlin BL, Eloff A, Dafer RM, Stein MR, Drexler E, Martin VT, Hutchinson S, Aurora SK, Recober A, Herial NA, Utley C, White L, Khuder SA (2010) Childhood maltreatment and migraine (part I). Prevalence and adult revictimizationa multicenter headache clinic survey. Headache 50(1):20–31
Meletiche DM, Lofland JH, Young WB (2001) Quality-of-life differences between patients with episodic and transformed migraine. Headache 41(6):573–578
Bigal ME, Serrano D, Reed M, Lipton RB (2008) Chronic migraine in the populationburden, diagnosis, and satisfaction with treatment. Neurology 71(8):559–566
Al-Hashel JY, Ahmed SF, Alroughani R, Goadsby PJ (2013) Migraine misdiagnosis as a sinusitis, a delay that can last for many years. J Headache Pain 14(1):97
Antonaci F, Pareja JA, Caminero AB, Sjaastad O (1998) Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and hemicrania continua. Parenteral indomethacinthe ‘indotest’. Headache 38(2):122–128
Schwartz BS, Stewart WF, Simon D, Lipton RB (1998) Epidemiology of tension-type headache. JAMA 279(5):381–383
Diener HC (2012) Detoxification for medication overuse headache is not necessary. Cephalalgia 32(5):423–427
Silberstein S, Loder E, Diamond S, Reed ML, Bigal ME, Lipton RB, Group AA (2007) Probable migraine in the United Statesresults of the American Migraine Prevalence and Prevention (AMPP) study. Cephalalgia 27(3):220–229
Lu SR, Fuh JL, Wang SJ, Juang KD, Chen SP, Liao YC, Wang YF (2013) Incidence and risk factors of chronic daily headache in young adolescentsa school cohort study. Pediatrics 132(1):e9–e16
Granziera C, DaSilva AF, Snyder J, Tuch DS, Hadjikhani N (2006) Anatomical alterations of the visual motion processing network in migraine with and without aura. PLoS Med 3(10):e402
Mainero C, Boshyan J, Hadjikhani N (2011) Altered functional magnetic resonance imaging resting-state connectivity in periaqueductal gray networks in migraine. Ann Neurol 70(5):838–845
Maleki N, Becerra L, Brawn J, Bigal M, Burstein R, Borsook D (2012) Concurrent functional and structural cortical alterations in migraine. Cephalalgia 32(8):607–620
Hadjikhani N, Ward N, Boshyan J, Napadow V, Maeda Y, Truini A, Caramia F, Tinelli E, Mainero C (2013) The missing linkenhanced functional connectivity between amygdala and visceroceptive cortex in migraine. Cephalalgia 33(15):1264–1268
Prescot A, Becerra L, Pendse G, Tully S, Jensen E, Hargreaves R, Renshaw P, Burstein R, Borsook D (2009) Excitatory neurotransmitters in brain regions in interictal migraine patients. Mol Pain 5:34
Welch KM, Nagesh V, Aurora SK, Gelman N (2001) Periaqueductal gray matter dysfunction in migrainecause or the burden of illness? Headache 41(7):629–637
Kruit MC, van Buchem MA, Launer LJ, Terwindt GM, Ferrari MD (2010) Migraine is associated with an increased risk of deep white matter lesions, subclinical posterior circulation infarcts and brain iron accumulationthe population-based MRI CAMERA study. Cephalalgia 30(2):129–136
Tepper SJ, Lowe MJ, Beall E, Phillips MD, Liu K, Stillman MJ, Horvat M, Jones SE (2012) Iron deposition in pain-regulatory nuclei in episodic migraine and chronic daily headache by MRI. Headache 52(2):236–243
Reyngoudt H, Paemeleire K, Descamps B, De Deene Y, Achten E (2011) 31P-MRS demonstrates a reduction in high-energy phosphates in the occipital lobe of migraine without aura patients. Cephalalgia 31(12):1243–1253
Paemeleire K, Schoenen J (2013) (31) P-MRS in migrainefallen through the cracks. Headache 53(4):676–678
Ambrosini A, Schoenen J (2006) Electrophysiological response patterns of primary sensory cortices in migraine. J Headache Pain 7(6):377–388
Chen WT, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Lin CP, Ko YC, Lin YY (2009) Peri-ictal normalization of visual cortex excitability in migrainean MEG study. Cephalalgia 29(11):1202–1211
Coppola G, Pierelli F, Schoenen J (2007) Is the cerebral cortex hyperexcitable or hyperresponsive in migraine? Cephalalgia 27(12):1427–1439
De Tommaso M, Ambrosini A, Brighina F, Coppola G, Perrotta A, Pierelli F, Sandrini G, Valeriani M, Marinazzo D, Stramaglia S, Schoenen J (2014) Altered processing of sensory stimuli in patients with migraine. Nat Rev Neurol 10(3):144–155
Schoenen J (1996) Deficient habituation of evoked cortical potentials in migrainea link between brain biology, behavior and trigeminovascular activation? Biomed Pharmacother 50(2):71–78
Weiller C, May A, Limmroth V, Juptner M, Kaube H, Schayck RV, Coenen HH, Diener HC (1995) Brain stem activation in spontaneous human migraine attacks. Nat Med 1(7):658–660
Bahra A, Matharu MS, Buchel C, Frackowiak RS, Goadsby PJ (2001) Brainstem activation specific to migraine headache. Lancet 357(9261):1016–1017
Maniyar FH, Sprenger T, Monteith T, Schankin C, Goadsby PJ (2014) Brain activations in the premonitory phase of nitroglycerin-triggered migraine attacks. Brain 137(Pt 1):232–241
Schoenen J (2011) Is chronic migraine a never-ending migraine attack? Pain 152(2):239–240
Coppola G, Iacovelli E, Bracaglia M, Serrao M, Di Lorenzo C, Pierelli F (2013) Electrophysiological correlates of episodic migraine chronificationevidence for thalamic involvement. J Headache Pain 14(1):76
Chen WT, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Lin CP, Ko YC, Lin YY (2011) Persistent ictal-like visual cortical excitability in chronic migraine. Pain 152(2):254–258
Chen WT, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Ko YC, Lee YC, Hamalainen MS, Lin YY (2012) Visual cortex excitability and plasticity associated with remission from chronic to episodic migraine. Cephalalgia 32(7):537–543
Ashina S, Serrano D, Lipton RB, Maizels M, Manack AN, Turkel CC, Reed ML, Buse DC (2012) Depression and risk of transformation of episodic to chronic migraine. J Headache Pain 13(8):615–624
Matharu MS, Bartsch T, Ward N, Frackowiak RS, Weiner R, Goadsby PJ (2004) Central neuromodulation in chronic migraine patients with suboccipital stimulatorsa PET study. Brain 127(Pt 1):220–230
Riederer F, Gantenbein AR, Marti M, Luechinger R, Kollias S, Sandor PS (2013) Decrease of gray matter volume in the midbrain is associated with treatment response in medication-overuse headachepossible influence of orbitofrontal cortex. J Neurosci 33(39):15343–15349
Coppola G, Curra A, Di Lorenzo C, Parisi V, Gorini M, Sava SL, Schoenen J, Pierelli F (2010) Abnormal cortical responses to somatosensory stimulation in medication-overuse headache. BMC Neurol 10:126
Fumal A, Laureys S, Di Clemente L, Boly M, Bohotin V, Vandenheede M, Coppola G, Salmon E, Kupers R, Schoenen J (2006) Orbitofrontal cortex involvement in chronic analgesic-overuse headache evolving from episodic migraine. Brain 129(Pt 2):543–550
Chanraud S, Di Scala G, Dilharreguy B, Schoenen J, Allard M, Radat F (2014) Brain functional connectivity and morphology changes in medication-overuse headacheclue for dependence-related processes? Cephalalgia [Epub ahead of print]
Santamarta E, Meilan A, Saiz A, Larrosa D, Cernuda-Morollon E, Calleja S, Benavente L, Moris G, Pascual J (2014) Chronic migraine does not increase posterior circulation territory (PCT) infarct-like lesions. J Neurol Sci 336(1–2):180–183
Louter MA, Bosker JE, van Oosterhout WP, van Zwet EW, Zitman FG, Ferrari MD, Terwindt GM (2013) Cutaneous allodynia as a predictor of migraine chronification. Brain 136(Pt 11):3489–3496
Gaul C, Bromstrup J, Fritsche G, Diener HC, Katsarava Z (2011) Evaluating integrated headache carea one-year follow-up observational study in patients treated at the Essen headache centre. BMC Neurol 11:124
Lenaerts M, Bastings E, Sianard J, Schoenen J (1996) Sodium valproate in severe migraine and tension-type headachean open study of long-term efficacy and correlation with blood levels. Acta Neurol Belg 96(2):126–129
Mathew NT (2006) The prophylactic treatment of chronic daily headache. Headache 46(10):1552–1564
Yurekli VA, Akhan G, Kutluhan S, Uzar E, Koyuncuoglu HR, Gultekin F (2008) The effect of sodium valproate on chronic daily headache and its subgroups. J Headache Pain 9(1):37–41
Silvestrini M, Bartolini M, Coccia M, Baruffaldi R, Taffi R, Provinciali L (2003) Topiramate in the treatment of chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 23(8):820–824
Diener HC, Bussone G, Van Oene JC, Lahaye M, Schwalen S, Goadsby PJ, Group T-M-S (2007) Topiramate reduces headache days in chronic migrainea randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Cephalalgia 27(7):814–823
Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Dodick DW, Freitag FG, Ramadan N, Mathew N, Brandes JL, Bigal M, Saper J, Ascher S, Jordan DM, Greenberg SJ, Hulihan J, Topiramate Chronic Migraine Study G (2007) Efficacy and safety of topiramate for the treatment of chronic migrainea randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Headache 47(2):170–180
Diener HC, Dodick DW, Goadsby PJ, Bigal ME, Bussone G, Silberstein SD, Mathew N, Ascher S, Morein J, Hulihan JF, Biondi DM, Greenberg SJ (2009) Utility of topiramate for the treatment of patients with chronic migraine in the presence or absence of acute medication overuse. Cephalalgia 29(10):1021–1027
Bussone G, Diener HC, Pfeil J, Schwalen S (2005) Topiramate 100 mg/day in migraine preventiona pooled analysis of double-blind randomised controlled trials. Int J Clin Pract 59(8):961–968
Evans RW (2013) A rational approach to the management of chronic migraine. Headache 53(1):168–176
Binder WJ, Brin MF, Blitzer A, Schoenrock LD, Pogoda JM (2000) Botulinum toxin type A (BOTOX) for treatment of migraine headachesan open-label study. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 123(6):669–676
Aoki KR (2005) Review of a proposed mechanism for the antinociceptive action of botulinum toxin type A. Neurotoxicology 26(5):785–793
Delstanche S, Schoenen J (2010) Botulinum toxin for the treatment of headachea promising path on a “dead end road”? Acta Neurol Belg 110(3):221–229
Jackson JL, Kuriyama A, Hayashino Y (2012) Botulinum toxin A for prophylactic treatment of migraine and tension headaches in adultsa meta-analysis. JAMA 307(16):1736–1745
Dodick DW, Turkel CC, DeGryse RE, Aurora SK, Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Diener HC, Brin MF, Group PCMS (2010) OnabotulinumtoxinA for treatment of chronic migrainepooled results from the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phases of the PREEMPT clinical program. Headache 50(6):921–936
Aurora SK, Dodick DW, Turkel CC, DeGryse RE, Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Diener HC, Brin MF, Group PCMS (2010) OnabotulinumtoxinA for treatment of chronic migraineresults from the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase of the PREEMPT 1 trial. Cephalalgia 30(7):793–803
Diener HC, Dodick DW, Aurora SK, Turkel CC, DeGryse RE, Lipton RB, Silberstein SD, Brin MF, Group PCMS (2010) OnabotulinumtoxinA for treatment of chronic migraineresults from the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase of the PREEMPT 2 trial. Cephalalgia 30(7):804–814
Solomon S (2011) Botulinum toxin for the treatment of chronic migrainethe placebo effect. Headache 51(6):980–984
Meissner K, Fassler M, Rucker G, Kleijnen J, Hrobjartsson A, Schneider A, Antes G, Linde K (2013) Differential effectiveness of placebo treatmentsa systematic review of migraine prophylaxis. JAMA Intern Med 173(21):1941–1951
MHRA. Available fromhttp://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/par/documents/websiteresources/con108643.pdf
Cernuda-Morollon E, Martinez-Camblor P, Ramon C, Larrosa D, Serrano-Pertierra E, Pascual J (2014) CGRP and VIP levels as predictors of efficacy of onabotulinumtoxin type A in chronic migraine. Headache [Epub ahead of print]
NICE. Available fromhttp://publications.nice.org.uk/botulinum-toxin-type-a-for-the-prevention-of-headaches-in-adults-with-chronic-migraine-ta260
Cruccu G, Aziz TZ, Garcia-Larrea L, Hansson P, Jensen TS, Lefaucheur JP, Simpson BA, Taylor RS (2007) EFNS guidelines on neurostimulation therapy for neuropathic pain. Eur J Neurol 14(9):952–970
Weiner RL, Reed KL (1999) Peripheral neurostimulation for control of intractable occipital neuralgia. Neuromodulation 2:217–222
Saper JR, Dodick DW, Silberstein SD, McCarville S, Sun M, Goadsby PJ (2011) Occipital nerve stimulation for the treatment of intractable chronic migraine headacheONSTIM feasibility study. Cephalalgia 31(3):271–285
Silberstein S, Dodick D, Saper J, Huh B, Slavin KV, Sharan A, Reed K, Narouze S, Mogilner AY, Goldstein J, Trentman TL, Vaisman J, Ordia J, Weber P, Deer T, Levy R, Diaz R, Washburn S, Mekhail N (2012) Safety and efficacy of peripheral nerve stimulation of the occipital nerves for the management of chronic migraineresults from a randomized, multicenter, double-blinded, controlled study. Cephalalgia 32(16):1165–1179
Dodick D, Silberstein S, Huh B, Slavin KV, Sharan A, Reed K, Narouze S, Mogilner AY, Goldstein J, Vaisman J, Investigators SCMS (2013) Evidence for long-term efficacy of peripheral nerve stimulation of occipital nerves in the management of chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 33(8 Suppl)58
Magis D, Schoenen J (2012) Advances and challenges in neurostimulation for headaches. Lancet Neurol 11:708–719
Bartsch T, Goadsby PJ (2002) Stimulation of the greater occipital nerve induces increased central excitability of dural afferent input. Brain 125(Pt 7):1496–1509
Bartsch T, Goadsby PJ (2003) Increased responses in trigeminocervical nociceptive neurons to cervical input after stimulation of the dura mater. Brain 126(Pt 8):1801–1813
Magis D, Allena M, Bolla M, De Pasqua V, Remacle JM, Schoenen J (2007) Occipital nerve stimulation for drug-resistant chronic cluster headachea prospective pilot study. Lancet Neurol 6(4):314–321
Magis D, Bruno MA, Fumal A, Gerardy PY, Hustinx R, Laureys S, Schoenen J (2011) Central modulation in cluster headache patients treated with occipital nerve stimulationan FDG-PET study. BMC Neurol 11:25
Reed K, Will KR, Chapman J, Richter E (2011) Combined occipital and supraorbital neurostimulation for chronic migraine headachesan extended case series. Cephalalgia 31(Suppl 1):98
Guyuron B, Reed D, Kriegler JS, Davis J, Pashmini N, Amini S (2009) A placebo-controlled surgical trial of the treatment of migraine headaches. Plast Reconstr Surg 124(2):461–468
Mathew PG (2014) A critical evaluation of migraine trigger site deactivation surgery. Headache 54(1):142–152
Solomon S, Guglielmo KM (1985) Treatment of headache by transcutaneous electrical stimulation. Headache 25(1):12–15
Bronfort G, Nilsson N, Haas M, Evans R, Goldsmith CH, Assendelft WJ, Bouter LM (2004) Non-invasive physical treatments for chronic/recurrent headache. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3CD001878
Schoenen J, Vandersmissen B, Jeangette S, Herroelen L, Vandenheede M, Gérard P, Magis D (2013) Migraine prevention with a supraorbital transcutaneous stimulatora randomized controlled trial. Neurology 80(8):697–704
Magis D, Sava S, d’Elia TS, Baschi R, Schoenen J (2013) Safety and patients’ satisfaction of transcutaneous Supraorbital NeuroStimulation (tSNS) with the Cefaly(R) device in headache treatmenta survey of 2,313 headache sufferers in the general population. J Headache Pain 14(1):95
Holland P, Schembri CT, Frederick JP, Goadsby P (2009) Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of migraine aura? Cephalalgia 29 (suppl 1)22 (abstract)
Chen R, Classen J, Gerloff C, Celnik P, Wassermann EM, Hallett M, Cohen LG (1997) Depression of motor cortex excitability by low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology 48(5):1398–1403
Pascual-Leone A, Valls-Sole J, Wassermann EM, Hallett M (1994) Responses to rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex. Brain 117(Pt 4):847–858
Fumal A, Coppola G, Bohotin V, Gerardy PY, Seidel L, Donneau AF, Vandenheede M, Maertens de Noordhout A, Schoenen J (2006) Induction of long-lasting changes of visual cortex excitability by five daily sessions of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in healthy volunteers and migraine patients. Cephalalgia 26(2)143–149
Coppola G, De Pasqua V, Pierelli F, Schoenen J (2012) Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on somatosensory evoked potentials and high frequency oscillations in migraine. Cephalalgia 32(9):700–709
Lipton RB, Dodick DW, Silberstein SD, Saper JR, Aurora SK, Pearlman SH, Fischell RE, Ruppel PL, Goadsby PJ (2010) Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation for acute treatment of migraine with auraa randomised, double-blind, parallel-group, sham-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 9(4):373–380
Brighina F, Piazza A, Vitello G, Aloisio A, Palermo A, Daniele O, Fierro B (2004) rTMS of the prefrontal cortex in the treatment of chronic migrainea pilot study. J Neurol Sci 227(1):67–71
Conforto AB, Amaro E, Jr., Goncalves AL, Mercante JP, Guendler VZ, Ferreira JR, Kirschner CC, Peres MF (2014) Randomized, proof-of-principle clinical trial of active transcranial magnetic stimulation in chronic migraine. Cephalalgia 34(6):464–472
Sasso d’Elia T, Vigano A, Fataki M, Sava S, Schoenen J, Magis D (2013) Quadripulse repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of visual cortex for chronic migraine preventiona pilot trial. Cephalalgia 33(8 Suppl)49
Keeser D, Padberg F, Reisinger E, Pogarell O, Kirsch V, Palm U, Karch S, Moller HJ, Nitsche MA, Mulert C (2011) Prefrontal direct current stimulation modulates resting EEG and event-related potentials in healthy subjectsa standardized low resolution tomography (sLORETA) study. Neuroimage 55(2):644–657
Polania R, Paulus W, Nitsche MA (2012) Modulating cortico-striatal and thalamo-cortical functional connectivity with transcranial direct current stimulation. Hum Brain Mapp 33(10):2499–2508
Coppola G, Ambrosini A, Di Clemente L, Magis D, Fumal A, Gerard P, Pierelli F, Schoenen J (2007) Interictal abnormalities of gamma band activity in visual evoked responses in migrainean indication of thalamocortical dysrhythmia? Cephalalgia 27(12):1360–1367
Vigano A, D’Elia TS, Sava SL, Auve M, De Pasqua V, Colosimo A, Di Piero V, Schoenen J, Magis D (2013) Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) of the visual cortexa proof-of-concept study based on interictal electrophysiological abnormalities in migraine. J Headache Pain 14(1):23
Dasilva AF, Mendonca ME, Zaghi S, Lopes M, Dossantos MF, Spierings EL, Bajwa Z, Datta A, Bikson M, Fregni F (2012) tDCS-Induced analgesia and electrical fields in pain-related neural networks in chronic migraine. Headache 52(8):1283–1295
Paemeleire K, Van Buyten JP, Van Buynder M, Alicino D, Van Maele G, Smet I, Goadsby P (2010) Phenotype of patients responsive to occipital nerve stimulation for refractory head pain. Cephalalgia 30(6):662–673
Bernardy K, Klose P, Busch AJ, Choy EH, Hauser W (2013) Cognitive behavioural therapies for fibromyalgia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9CD009796
Martin PR, Nathan PR, Milech D, van Keppel M (1989) Cognitive therapy versus self-management training in the treatment of chronic headaches. Br J Clin Psychol 28 (Pt 4)347–361
Holroyd KA, Cottrell CK, O’Donnell FJ, Cordingley GE, Drew JB, Carlson BW, Himawan L (2010) Effect of preventive (beta blocker) treatment, behavioural migraine management, or their combination on outcomes of optimised acute treatment in frequent migrainerandomised controlled trial. BMJ 341:c4871
Eccleston C, Palermo TM, de CWAC, Lewandowski A, Morley S, Fisher E, Law E (2012) Psychological therapies for the management of chronic and recurrent pain in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12CD003968
Powers SW, Kashikar-Zuck SM, Allen JR, LeCates SL, Slater SK, Zafar M, Kabbouche MA, O’Brien HL, Shenk CE, Rausch JR, Hershey AD (2013) Cognitive behavioral therapy plus amitriptyline for chronic migraine in children and adolescentsa randomized clinical trial. JAMA 310(24):2622–2630
Lemstra M, Stewart B, Olszynski WP (2002) Effectiveness of multidisciplinary intervention in the treatment of migrainea randomized clinical trial. Headache 42(9):845–854
Wallasch TM, Angeli A, Kropp P (2012) Outcomes of a headache-specific cross-sectional multidisciplinary treatment program. Headache 52(7):1094–1105
Wallasch TM, Hermann C (2012) Validation of criterion-based patient assignment and treatment effectiveness of a multidisciplinary modularized managed care program for headache. J Headache Pain 13(5):379–387
Gaul C, van Doorn C, Webering N, Dlugaj M, Katsarava Z, Diener HC, Fritsche G (2011) Clinical outcome of a headache-specific multidisciplinary treatment program and adherence to treatment recommendations in a tertiary headache centeran observational study. J Headache Pain 12(4):475–483
Varkey E, Cider A, Carlsson J, Linde M (2011) Exercise as migraine prophylaxisa randomized study using relaxation and topi ramate as controls. Cephalalgia 31(14):1428–1438
Bigal ME, Lipton RB (2008) Excessive acute migraine medication use and migraine progression. Neurology 71(22):1821–1828
Sándor PS, Dodick DW, Schoenen J (2011) Optimal management of migraine taking into account comorbidities and “positive side effects”. InSchoenen J, Dodick DW, Sándor PS (eds) Comorbidity in Migraine. Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, pp 132–138
Rossi P, Faroni JV, Nappi G (2011) Short-term effectiveness of simple advice as a withdrawal strategy in simple and complicated medication overuse headache. Eur J Neurol 18(3):396–401
Grande RB, Aaseth K, Benth JS, Lundqvist C, Russell MB (2011) Reduction in medication-overuse headache after short information. The Akershus study of chronic headache. Eur J Neurol 18(1):129–137
Evers S, Jensen R, European Federation of Neurological S (2011) Treatment of medication overuse headache–guideline of the EFNS headache panel. Eur J Neurol 18(9):1115–1121
Goadsby PJ, Schoenen J, Ferrari MD, Silberstein SD, Dodick D (2006) Towards a definition of intractable headache for use in clinical practice and trials. Cephalalgia 26(9):1168–1170
EMA. Available fromhttp://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Press_release/2014/02/WC500161952.pdf
Rocca MA, Ceccarelli A, Falini A, Colombo B, Tortorella P, Bernasconi L, Comi G, Scotti G, Filippi M (2006) Brain gray matter changes in migraine patients with T2-visible lesionsa 3-T MRI study. Stroke 37(7):1765–1770
Stankewitz A, May A (2011) Increased limbic and brainstem activity during migraine attacks following olfactory stimulation. Neurology 77(5):476–482
Schwedt TJ, Schlaggar BL, Mar S, Nolan T, Coalson RS, Nardos B, Benzinger T, Larson-Prior LJ (2013) Atypical resting-state functional connectivity of affective pain regions in chronic migraine. Headache 53(5):737–751
Maleki N, Becerra L, Nutile L, Pendse G, Brawn J, Bigal M, Burstein R, Borsook D (2011) Migraine attacks the Basal Ganglia. Mol Pain 7:71
de Tommaso M, Valeriani M, Guido M, Libro G, Specchio LM, Tonali P, Puca F (2003) Abnormal brain processing of cutaneous pain in patients with chronic migraine. Pain 101(1–2):25–32
Perrotta A, Serrao M, Sandrini G, Burstein R, Sances G, Rossi P, Bartolo M, Pierelli F, Nappi G (2010) Sensitisation of spinal cord pain processing in medication overuse headache involves supraspinal pain control. Cephalalgia 30(3):272–284
Grazzi L, Chiapparini L, Ferraro S, Usai S, Andrasik F, Mandelli ML, Bruzzone MG, Bussone G (2010) Chronic migraine with medication overuse pre-post withdrawal of symptomatic medicationclinical results and FMRI correlations. Headache 50(6):998–1004