A Review of Known and Hypothetical Transmission Routes for Noroviruses

[en] Human noroviruses (NoVs) are considered a worldwide leading cause of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis. Due to a combination of prolonged shedding of high virus levels in feces, virus particle shedding during asymptomatic infections, and a high environmental persistence, NoVs are easily transmitted pathogens. Norovirus (NoV) outbreaks have often been reported and tend to affect a lot of people. NoV is spread via feces and vomit, but this NoV spread can occur through several transmission routes. While person-to-person transmission is without a doubt the dominant transmission route, human infective NoV outbreaks are often initiated by contaminated food or water. Zoonotic transmission of NoV has been investigated, but has thus far not been demonstrated. The presented review aims to give an overview of these NoV transmission routes. Regarding NoV person-to-person transmission, the NoV GII. 4 genotype is discussed in the current review as it has been very successful for several decades but reasons for its success have only recently been suggested. Both pre-harvest and post-harvest contamination of food products can lead to NoV food borne illness. Pre-harvest contamination of food products mainly occurs via contact with polluted irrigation water in case of fresh produce or with contaminated harvesting water in case of bivalve molluscan shellfish. On the other hand, an infected food handler is considered as a major cause of post-harvest contamination of food products. Both transmission routes are reviewed by a summary of described NoV food borne outbreaks between 2000 and 2010. A third NoV transmission route occurs via water and the spread of NoV via river water, ground water, and surface water is reviewed. Finally, although zoonotic transmission remains hypothetical, a summary on the bovine and porcine NoV presence observed in animals is given and the presence of human infective NoV in animals is discussed. © 2012 Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Disciplines :

Microbiology

Author, co-author :

Mathijs, E.; Department of Infectious and Parasitic diseases, Virology and Viral diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Boulevard du Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium, Food Science Department, Food Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Boulevard du Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium

Stals, A.; Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium, Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium

Baert, L.; Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium

Botteldoorn, N.; Division of Bacteriology, Department of Microbiology, Belgian Scientific Institute of Public Health, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

Denayer, S.; Division of Bacteriology, Department of Microbiology, Belgian Scientific Institute of Public Health, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

Mauroy, Axel ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département des maladies infectieuses et parasitaires > Virologie vétérinaire et maladies virales animales

Scipioni, Alexandra ; Department of Infectious and Parasitic diseases, Virology and Viral diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Boulevard du Colonster 20, 4000 Liège, Belgium

Daube, Georges ; Université de Liège - ULiège > Département de sciences des denrées alimentaires > Microbiologie des denrées alimentaires

Dierick, K.; Division of Bacteriology, Department of Microbiology, Belgian Scientific Institute of Public Health, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

Herman, L.; Technology and Food Science Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research (ILVO), Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium

More authors (3 more)

Language :

English

Title :

A Review of Known and Hypothetical Transmission Routes for Noroviruses

Publication date :

2012

Journal title :

Food and Environmental Virology

ISSN :

1867-0334

eISSN :

1867-0342

Publisher :

Springer, Germany

Volume :

Issue :

Pages :

131-152

Peer reviewed :

Peer Reviewed verified by ORBi

Available on ORBi :

since 01 February 2013

Statistics

Number of views

95 (10 by ULiège)

Number of downloads

2 (1 by ULiège)

More statistics

Scopus citations^®

Scopus citations^®
without self-citations

OpenCitations

Bibliography

Abbaszadegan, M., LeChevallier, M., & Gerba, C. (2003). Occurrence of viruses IN US groundwaters. American Water Works Journal, 95(9), 107-120.
Ahmed, S. M. (2012). The global seasonality of norovirus gastroenteritis. Master's thesis.
Alcalá, A. C., Hidalgo, M. A., Obando, C., Vizzi, E., Liprandi, F., & Ludert, J. E. (2003). Molecular identification of bovine enteric caliciviruses in Venezuela. Acta Cientifica Venezolana, 54(2), 148-152.
Anderson, A. D., Garrett, V. D., Sobel, J., Monroe, S. S., Fankhauser, R. L., Schwab, K. J., et al. (2001). Multistate outbreak of Norwalk-like virus gastroenteritis associated with a common caterer. American Journal of Epidemiology, 154(11), 1013-1019.
Anonymous. (2000). Appendix B guidelines for confirmation of foodborne-disease outbreaks. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49(SS01), 54-62.
Anonymous. (2009). FDA: Food code 2009. U. S. Public Health Service FDA, http://www. fda. gov/downloads/Food/FoodSafety/RetailFoodProtection/FoodCode/FoodCode2009/UCM189448. pdf.
Anonymous. (2010). Manual for the reporting of food-borne outbreaks in the framework of directive 2003/99/EC from the reporting year 2009. EFSA Journal, 8(4), 1578.
Anonymous. (2012). Scientific opinion on norovirus (NoV) in oysters: methods, limits and control options. EFSA Journal, 10(1), 2500.
Aoki, Y., Suto, A., Mizuta, K., Ahiko, T., Osaka, K., & Matsuzaki, Y. (2010). Duration of norovirus excretion and the longitudinal course of viral load in norovirus-infected elderly patients. Journal of Hospital Infection, 75(1), 42-46.
Atmar, R. L., Bernstein, D. I., Harro, C. D., Al-Ibrahim, M. S., Chen, W. H., Ferreira, J., et al. (2011). Norovirus vaccine against experimental human Norwalk virus illness. New England Journal of Medicine, 365(23), 2178-2187.
Atmar, R. L., Opekun, A. R., Gilger, M. A., Estes, M. K., Crawford, S. E., Neill, F. H., et al. (2008). Norwalk virus shedding after experimental human infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(10), 1553-1557.
Aw, T. G., Gin, K. Y.-H., Ean Oon, L. L., Chen, E. X., & Woo, C. H. (2009). Prevalence and genotypes of human noroviruses in tropical urban surface waters and clinical samples in Singapore. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75(15), 4984-4992.
Baert, L., Debevere, J., & Uyttendaele, M. (2009a). The efficacy of preservation methods to inactivate foodborne viruses. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 131(2-3), 83-94.
Baert, L., Mattison, K., Loisy-Hamon, F., Harlow, J., Martyres, A., Lebeau, B., et al. (2011). Review: Norovirus prevalence in Belgian, Canadian and French fresh produce: A threat to human health? International Journal of Food Microbiology, 151(3), 261-269.
Baert, L., Uyttendaele, M., & Debevere, J. (2008). Evaluation of viral extraction methods on a broad range of Ready-To-Eat foods with conventional and real-time RT-PCR for Norovirus GII detection. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 123(1-2), 101-108.
Baert, L., Uyttendaele, M., Stals, A., van Coillie, E., Dierick, K., Debevere, J., et al. (2009b). Reported foodborne outbreaks due to noroviruses in Belgium: The link between food and patient investigations in an international context. Epidemiology and Infection, 137(3), 316-325.
Barthe, C., Locas, A., Barbeau, B., Carriere, A., & Payment, P. (2007). Virus occurrence in municipal groundwater sources in Quebec, Canada. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 53(6), 688-694.
Becker, K. M., Moe, C. L., Southwick, K. L., & MacCormack, J. N. (2000). Transmission of Norwalk virus during a football game. New England Journal of Medicine, 343(17), 1223-1227.
Blanco Fernandez, M. D., Torres, C., Martinez, L. C., Giordano, M. O., Masachessi, G., Barril, P. A., et al. (2011). Genetic and evolutionary characterization of norovirus from sewage and surface waters in Cordoba City, Argentina. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 11(7), 1631-1637.
Bohm, S. R., Brennan, B. M., Schirmer, R., & Cabose, G. (2008). Norovirus outbreak associated with ill food-service workers: Michigan, January-February 2006 (Reprinted MMWR, vol 56, pg 1212-1216, 2007). Journal of the American Medical Association, 299(2), 164-166.
Bok, K., Abente, E. J., Realpe-Quintero, M., Mitra, T., Sosnovtsev, S. V., Kapikian, A. Z., et al. (2009). Evolutionary dynamics of GII. 4 Noroviruses over a thirty-four year period. Journal of Virology, 83(22), 11890-11901.
Bok, K., Parra, G. I., Mitra, T., Abente, E., Shaver, C. K., Boon, D., et al. (2011). Chimpanzees as an animal model for human norovirus infection and vaccine development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(1), 325-330.
Bosch, A. (1998). Human enteric viruses in the water environment: A minireview. International Microbiology, 1(3), 191-196.
Boxman, I. L. A., Tilburg, J. J. H. C., Loeke, N. A. J. M., Vennema, H., de Boer, E., & Koopmans, M. (2007). An efficient and rapid method for recovery of norovirus from food associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis. Journal of Food Protection, 70(2), 504-508.
Boxman, I. L. A., Tilburg, J. J. H. C., Te Loeke, N. A. J. M., Vennema, H., Jonker, K., de Boer, E., et al. (2006). Detection of noroviruses in shellfish in the Netherlands. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 108(3), 391-396.
Bridger, J. C. (1980). Detection by electron microscopy of caliciviruses, astroviruses and rotavirus-like particles in the faeces of piglets with diarrhoea. The Veterinary Record, 107(23), 532-533.
Bull, R. A., Eden, J. S., Rawlinson, W. D., White, P. A. (2010). Rapid evolution of pandemic Noroviruses of the GII. 4 Lineage. PLoS Pathogens, 6(3), e-1000831.
Bull, R. A., Tanaka, M. M., & White, P. A. (2007). Norovirus recombination. Journal of General Virology, 88(12), 3347-3359.
Bull, R. A., & White, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms of GII. 4 norovirus evolution. Trends in Microbiology, 19(5), 233-240.
Cheong, S., Lee, C., Song, S. W., Choi, W. C., Lee, C. H., & Kim, S. J. (2009). Enteric viruses in raw vegetables and groundwater used for irrigation in South Korea. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 75(24), 7745-7751.
Cieslak, P. R., Lee, L. E., Papafragkou, E., & An, N. (2009). Recurring norovirus outbreaks in a long-term residential treatment facility-Oregon, 2007. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 58(25), 694-698.
Costas, L., Vilella, A., Llupia, A., Bosch, J., de Jimenez Anta, M. T., & Trilla, A. (2007). Outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis among staff at a hospital in Barcelona, Spain, September 2007. Euro Surveillance, 12(11), E071122. 5.
Cotterelle, B., Drougard, C., Rolland, J., Becamel, M., Boudon, M., Pinede, S., et al. (2005). Outbreak of norovirus infection associated with the consumption of frozen raspberries, France, March 2005. Euro Surveillance, 10(17), E0504281.
Croci, L., Losio, M. N., Suffredini, E., Pavoni, E., Di Pasquale, S., Fallacara, F., et al. (2007). Assessment of human enteric viruses in shellfish from the northern Adriatic sea. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 114(2), 252-257.
Cunha, J. B., De Mendonça, M. C. L., Miagostovich, M. P., & Leite, J. P. G. (2010). Genetic diversity of porcine enteric caliciviruses in pigs raised in Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil. Archives of Virology, 155(8), 1301-1305.
da Silva, A. K., Le Saux, J. C., Parnaudeau, S., Pommepuy, M., Elimelech, M., & Le Guyader, F. S. (2007). Evaluation of removal of noroviruses during wastewater treatment, using real-time reverse transcription-PCR: Different behaviors of genogroups I and II. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73(24), 7891-7897.
Daniels, N. A., Bergmire-Sweat, D. A., Schwab, K. J., Hendricks, K. A., Reddy, S., Rowe, S. H., et al. (2000). A foodborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses: First molecular traceback to deli sandwiches contaminated during preparation. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 181(4), 1467-1470.
David, S. T., McIntyre, L., MacDougall, L., Kelly, D., Liem, S., Schallie, K., et al. (2007). An outbreak of norovirus caused by consumption of oysters from geographically dispersed harvest sites, British Columbia, Canada, 2004. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 4(3), 349-358.
de Coster, E., de Wit, M., & Widdowson, M. (2001). Large outbreak of Norwalk-like virus in ministry staff in the Netherlands. Euro Surveillance, 5(1), 1-2.
De Wit, M. A. S., Widdowson, M. A., Vennema, H., de Bruin, E., Fernandes, T., & Koopmans, M. (2007). Large outbreak of norovirus: The baker who should have known better. Journal of Infection, 55(2), 188-193.
Deng, Y., Batten, C. A., Liu, B. L., Lambden, P. R., Elschner, M., Günther, H., et al. (2003). Studies of epidemiology and seroprevalence of bovine noroviruses in Germany. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 41(6), 2300-2305.
Dippold, L., Lee, R., Selman, C., Monroe, S., & Henry, C. (2003). A gastroenteritis outbreak due to norovirus associated with a Colorado hotel. Journal of Environmental Health, 66(5), 13-26.
Dziuban, E. J., Liang, J. L., Craun, G. F., Hill, V., Yu, P. A., Painter, J., et al. (2006). Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water-United States, 2003-2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55(12), 1-30.
Escudero, B. I., Rawsthorne, H., Gensel, C., & Jaykus, L. A. (2012). Persistence and transferability of noroviruses on and between common surfaces and foods. Journal of Food Protection, 75(5), 927-935.
Ethelberg, S., Lisby, M., Bottiger, B., Schultz, A. C., Villif, A., Jensen, T., et al. (2010). Outbreaks of gastroenteritis linked to lettuce, Denmark, January 2010. Eurosurveillance, 15(6), 2-4.
Falkenhorst, G., Krusell, L., Lisby, M., Madsen, S. B., Bottiger, B., & Molbak, K. (2005). Imported frozen raspberries cause a series of norovirus outbreaks in Denmark, 2005. Euro Surveillance, 10(9), E050922. 2.
Feachem, R., Mara, D. D., & Bradley, D. J. (1983). Sanitation and disease: Health aspects of excreta and wastewater management (p. 294). Dorchester: Wiley.
Fretz, R., Svoboda, P., Luthi, T. M., Tanner, M., & Baumgartner, A. (2005). Outbreaks of gastroenteritis due to infections with Norovirus in Switzerland, 2001-2003. Epidemiology and Infection, 133(3), 429-437.
Friedman, D. S., Heisey-Grove, D., Argyros, F., Berl, E., Nsubuga, J., Stiles, T., et al. (2005). An outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with wedding cakes. Epidemiology and Infection, 133(6), 1057-1063.
Gabrieli, R., Maccari, F., Ruta, A., Pana, A., & Divizia, M. (2009). Norovirus detection in groundwater. Food and Environmental Virology, 1(2), 92-96.
Gallay, A., De Valk, H., Cournot, M., Ladeuil, B., Hemery, C., Castor, C., et al. (2006). A large multi-pathogen waterborne community outbreak linked to faecal contamination of a groundwater system, France, 2000. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 12(6), 561-570.
Gallimore, C. I., Barreiros, M. A. B., Brown, D. W. G., Nascimento, J. P., & Leite, J. P. G. (2004a). Noroviruses associated with acute gastroenteritis in a children's day care facility in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 37(3), 321-326.
Gallimore, C. I., Cheesbrough, J. S., Lamden, K., Bingham, C., Graya, J. J., & Gray, J. J. (2005). Multiple norovirus genotypes characterised from an oyster-associated outbreak of gastroenteritis. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 103(3), 323-330.
Gallimore, C. I., Cubitt, D., Du Plessis, N., & Gray, J. J. (2004b). Asymptomatic and symptomatic excretion of noroviruses during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 42(5), 2271-2274.
Gandhi, K. M., Mandrell, R. E., & Tian, P. (2010). Binding of virus-like particles of Norwalk virus to romaine lettuce veins. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(24), 7997-8003.
Glasscock, S., Welch, J., Dailer, J., Elmer, W., Kline, K., del Rosario, M., et al. (2007). Multistate outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis among attendees at a family reunion-Grant County, West Virginia, October 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56(27), 673-678.
Godoy, P., Izcara, J., Bartolome, R., Bach, P., Escobar, A., Pal, M., et al. (2005). Outbreak of food-borne Norovirus associated with the consumption of sandwiches. Medicina Clinica, 124(5), 161-164.
Green, K. Y., Ando, T., Balayan, M. S., Berke, T., Clarke, I. N., Estes, M. K., et al. (2000). Taxonomy of the caliciviruses. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 181, S322-S330.
Greenberg, H. R., Valdesuso, J., Yolken, R. H., Gangarosa, E., Gary, W., Wyatt, R. G., et al. (1979). Role of Norwalk virus in outbreaks of nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 139(5), 564-568.
Greening, G. E. (2006). Human and animal viruses in food (including taxonomy of enteric viruses). In S. M. Goyal (Ed.), Viruses in foods (p. 5). New York: Springer.
Grotto, I., Huerta, M., Balicer, R. D., Halperin, T., Cohen, D., Orr, N., et al. (2004). An outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis on an Israeli military base. Infection, 32(6), 339-343.
Gunn, R. A., Janowski, H. T., Lieb, S. P. E. N., Prather, E. C., & Greenberg, H. B. (1982). Norwalk virus gastroenteritis following raw oyster consumption. American Journal of Epidemiology, 115(3), 348-351.
Haramoto, E., Katayama, H., Oguma, K., & Ohgaki, S. (2005). Application of cation-coated filter method to detection of noroviruses, enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and torque teno viruses in the Tamagawa River in Japan. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(5), 2403-2411.
He, X., Wei, Y., Cheng, L., Zhang, D., & Wang, Z. (2011). Molecular detection of three gastroenteritis viruses in urban surface waters in Beijing and correlation with levels of fecal indicator bacteria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(9), 5563-5570.
Hewitt, J., Leonard, M., Greening, G. E., & Lewis, G. D. (2011). Influence of wastewater treatment process and the population size on human virus profiles in wastewater. Water Research, 45(18), 6267-6276.
Hirakata, Y., Arisawa, K., Nishio, O., & Nakagomi, O. (2005). Multiprefectural spread of gastroenteritis outbreaks attributable to a single genogroup II norovirus strain from a tourist restaurant in Nagasaki, Japan. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(3), 1093-1098.
Hjertqvist, M., Johansson, A., Svensson, N., Abom, P. E., Magnusson, C., Olsson, M., et al. (2006). Four outbreaks of norovirus gastroenteritis after consuming raspberries, Sweden, June-August 2006. Euro Surveillance, 11(9), E060907. 1.
Horman, A., Rimhanen-Finne, R., Maunula, L., von Bonsdorff, C. H., Torvela, N., Heikinheimo, A., et al. (2004). Campylobacter spp., Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium noroviruses and indicator organisms in surface water in southwestern Finland, 2000-2001. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(1), 87-95.
Ike, A. C., Roth, B. N., Böhm, R., Pfitzner, A. J., & Marschang, R. E. (2007). Identification of bovine enteric Caliciviruses (BEC) from cattle in Baden-Württemberg. DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 114(1), 12-15.
Johansson, P. J. H., Torven, M., Hammarlund, A. C., Bjorne, U., Hedlund, K. O., & Svensson, L. (2002). Food-borne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with genogroup I calicivirus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 40(3), 794-798.
Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, & Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program. (2003). Codex alimentarius: Food hygiene, basic texts.
Jor, E., Myrmel, M., & Jonassen, C. M. (2010). SYBR Green based real-time RT-PCR assay for detection and genotype prediction of bovine noroviruses and assessment of clinical significance in Norway. Journal of Virological Methods, 169(1), 1-7.
Jung, J. H., Yoo, C. H., Koo, E. S., Kim, H. M., Na, Y., Jheong, W. H., et al. (2011). Occurrence of norovirus and other enteric viruses in untreated groundwaters of Korea. Journal of Water and Health, 9(3), 544-555.
Jurzik, L., Hamza, I. A., Puchert, W., Überla, K., & Wilhelm, M. (2010). Chemical and microbiological parameters as possible indicators for human enteric viruses in surface water. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 213(3), 210-216.
Kapikian, A. Z., Wyatt, R. G., Dolin, R., Thornhill, T. S., Kalica, A. R., & Chanock, R. M. (1972). Visualization by immune electron microscopy of a 27-nm particle associated with acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Journal of Virology, 10(5), 1075-1081.
Katayama, H., Haramoto, E., Oguma, K., Yamashita, H., Tajima, A., Nakajima, H., et al. (2008). One-year monthly quantitative survey of noroviruses, enteroviruses, and adenoviruses in wastewater collected from six plants in Japan. Water Research, 42(6-7), 1441-1448.
Keum, H., Moon, H., Park, S., Kim, H., Rho, S., & Park, B. (2009). Porcine noroviruses and sapoviruses on Korean swine farms. Archives of Virology, 154(11), 1765-1774.
Kiehl, W., Schreier, E., Twisselman, B., & Wunderle, W. (2001). Outbreak of Norwalk-like infection in Germany. Eurosurveillance, 5(15), 1.
Kingsley, D. H., Meade, G. K., & Richards, G. P. (2002). Detection of both hepatitis A virus and Norwalk-like virus in imported clams associated with food-borne illness. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68(8), 3914-3918.
Kishida, N., Morita, H., Haramoto, E., Asami, M., & Akiba, M. (2012). One-year weekly survey of noroviruses and enteric adenoviruses in the Tone River water in Tokyo metropolitan area, Japan. Water Research, 46(9), 2905-2910.
Kitajima, M., Haramoto, E., Phanuwan, C., Katayama, H., & Ohgaki, S. (2009). Detection of genogroup IV norovirus in wastewater and river water in Japan. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 49(5), 655-658.
Kitajima, M., Oka, T., Haramoto, E., Phanuwan, C., Takeda, N., Katayama, K., et al. (2011). Genetic diversity of genogroup IV noroviruses in wastewater in Japan. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 52(2), 181-184.
Kiulia, N. M., Netshikweta, R., Page, N. A., van Zyl, W. B., Kiraithe, M. M., Nyachieo, A., et al. (2010). The detection of enteric viruses in selected urban and rural river water and sewage in Kenya, with special reference to rotaviruses. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 109(3), 818-828.
Knox, J. W., Tyrrel, S. F., Daccache, A., & Weatherhead, E. K. (2011). A geospatial approach to assessing microbiological water quality risks associated with irrigation abstraction. Water and Environment Journal, 25(2), 282-289.
Koopman, J. S., Eckert, E. A., Greenberg, H. B., Strohm, B. C., Isaacson, R. E., & Monto, A. S. (1982). Norwalk virus enteric illness acquired by swimming exposure. American Journal of Epidemiology, 115(2), 173-177.
Koopmans, M. (2009). Noroviruses in healthcare settings: A challenging problem. Journal of Hospital Infection, 73(4), 331-337.
Koopmans, M., & Duizer, E. (2004). Foodborne viruses: An emerging problem. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 90(1), 23-41.
Kroneman, A., Vennema, H., Deforche, K., Avoort, H. V. D., Penaranda, S., Oberste, M. S., et al. (2011). An automated genotyping tool for enteroviruses and noroviruses. Journal of Clinical Virology, 51(2), 121-125.
Kroneman, A., Verhoef, L., Harris, J., Vennema, H., Duizer, E., van Duynhoven, Y., et al. (2008). Analysis of integrated virological and epidemiological reports of norovirus outbreaks collected within the Foodborne Viruses in Europe Network from 1 July 2001 to 30 June 2006. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 46(9), 2959-2965.
Kuo, H. W., Schmid, D., Jelovcan, S., Pichler, A. M., Magnet, E., Reichart, S., et al. (2009). A foodborne outbreak due to Norovirus in Austria, 2007. Journal of Food Protection, 72(1), 193-196.
La Rosa, G., Fontana, S., Di Grazia, A., Iaconelli, M., Pourshaban, M., & Muscillo, M. (2007). Molecular identification and genetic analysis of norovirus genogroups I and II in water environments: Comparative analysis of different reverse transcription-PCR assays (vol 73, pg 4152). Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73(19), 6329.
Lamhoujeb, S., Fliss, I., Ngazoa, S. E., & Jean, J. (2009). Molecular study of the persistence of infectious human Norovirus on food-contact surfaces. Food and Environmental Virology, 1(2), 51-56.
Laverick, M. A., Wyn-Jones, A. P., & Carter, M. J. (2004). Quantitative RT-PCR for the enumeration of noroviruses (Norwalk-like viruses) in water and sewage. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 39(2), 127-136.
Le Guyader, F. S., Bon, F., DeMedici, D., Parnaudeau, S., Bertone, A., Crudeli, S., et al. (2006). Detection of multiple noroviruses associated with an international gastroenteritis outbreak linked to oyster consumption. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44(11), 3878-3882.
Le Guyader, F. S., Le Saux, J. C., Ambert-Balay, K., Krol, J., Serais, O., Parnaudeau, S., et al. (2008). Aichi virus, norovirus, astrovirus, enterovirus, and rotavirus involved in clinical cases from a French oyster-related gastroenteritis outbreak. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 46(12), 4011-4017.
Le Guyader, F. S., Mittelholzer, C., Haugarreau, L., Hedlund, K. O., Alsterlund, R., Pommepuy, M., et al. (2004). Detection of noroviruses in raspberries associated with a gastroenteritis outbreak. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 97(2), 179-186.
Le Guyader, F. S., Neill, F. H., Dubois, E., Bon, F., Loisy, F., Kohli, E., et al. (2003). A semiquantitative approach to estimate Norwalk-like virus contamination of oysters implicated in an outbreak. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 87(1-2), 107-112.
Lederer, I., Schmid, D., Pichler, A. M., Dapra, R., Kraler, P., Blassnig, A., et al. (2005). Outbreak of norovirus infections associated with consuming food from a catering company, Austria, September 2005. Euro Surveillance, 10(10), E051020. 7.
Lee, N., Chan, M. C. W., Wong, B., Choi, K. W., Sin, W., Lui, G., et al. (2007). Fecal viral concentration and diarrhea in norovirus gastroenteritis. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(9), 1399-1401.
Lee, C., & Kim, S. J. (2008). The genetic diversity of human noroviruses detected in river water in Korea. Water Research, 42(17), 4477-4484.
Lee, H., Kim, M., Lee, J. E., Lim, M. Y., Kim, M. J., Kim, J. M., et al. (2011). Investigation of norovirus occurrence in groundwater in metropolitan Seoul, Korea. Science of the Total Environment, 409(11), 2078-2084.
L'Homme, Y., Sansregret, R., Plante-Fortier, E., Lamontagne, A. M., Ouardani, M., Lacroix, G., et al. (2009). Genomic characterization of swine caliciviruses representing a new genus of Caliciviridae. Virus Genes, 39(1), 66-75.
Li, J. (2012). New interventions against human Norovirus: Progresses, challenges, and opportunities. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 3(1), 331-352.
Li, D., Baert, L., Xia, M., Zhong, W., Jiang, X., & Uyttendaele, M. (2012). Effects of a variety of food extracts and juices on the specific binding ability of Norovirus GII. 4 P particles. Journal of Food Protection, 75(7), 1350-1354.
Liu, P. B., Chien, Y. W., Papafragkou, E., Hsiao, H. M., Jaykus, L. A., & Moe, C. (2009a). Persistence of human noroviruses on food preparation surfaces and human hands. Food and Environmental Virology, 1(3-4), 141-147.
Liu, G., Kahan, S. M., Jia, Y., & Karst, S. M. (2009b). Primary high-dose murine norovirus 1 infection fails to protect from secondary challenge with homologous virus. Journal of Virology, 83(13), 6963-6968.
LoBue, A. D., Lindesmith, L., Yount, B., Harrington, P. R., Thompson, J. M., Johnston, R. E., et al. (2006). Multivalent norovirus vaccines induce strong mucosal and systemic blocking antibodies against multiple strains. Vaccine, 24(24), 5220-5234.
Locas, A., Barthe, C., Margolin, A. B., & Payment, P. (2008). Groundwater microbiological quality in Canadian drinking water municipal wells. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 54(6), 472-478.
Lodder, W. J., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2005). Presence of noroviruses and other enteric viruses in sewage and surface waters in The Netherlands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(3), 1453-1461.
Lodder, W. J., van den Berg, H., Rutjes, S. A., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2010). Presence of enteric viruses in source waters for drinking water production in The Netherlands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(17), 5965-5971.
Lopman, B. A., Adak, G. K., Reacher, M. H., & Brown, D. W. G. (2003). Two epidemiologic patterns of Norovirus outbreaks: Surveillance in England and Wales, 1992-2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9(1), 71-77.
Lopman, B. A., Brown, D. W., & Koopmans, M. (2002). Human caliciviruses in Europe. Journal of Clinical Virology, 24(3), 137-160.
Lowther, J. A., Gustar, N. E., Hartnell, R. E., & Lees, D. N. (2012). Comparison of norovirus RNA levels in outbreak-related oysters with background environmental levels. Journal of Food Protection, 75(2), 389-393.
Lowther, J. A., Henshilwood, K., & Lees, D. N. (2008). Determination of norovirus contamination in oysters from two commercial harvesting areas over an extended period, using semiquantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR. Journal of Food Protection, 71(7), 1427-1433.
Makary, P., Maunula, L., Niskanen, T., Kuusi, M., Virtanen, M., Pajunen, S., et al. (2009). Multiple norovirus outbreaks among workplace canteen users in Finland, July 2006. Epidemiology and Infection, 137(3), 402-407.
Malek, M., Barzilay, E., Kramer, A., Camp, B., Jaykus, L. A., Escudero-Abarca, B., et al. (2009). Outbreak of norovirus infection among river rafters associated with packaged delicatessen meat, Grand Canyon, 2005. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 48(1), 31-37.
Mans, J., Netshikweta, R., Magwalivha, M., van Zyl, W. B., Taylor, M. B. (2012). Diverse norovirus genotypes identified in sewage-polluted river water in South Africa. Epidemiology and Infection, 1-11 (Epub ahead of print).
Martella, V., Campolo, M., Lorusso, E., Cavicchio, P., Camero, M., Bellacicco, A. L., et al. (2007). Norovirus in captive lion cub (Panthera leo). Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13, 1071-1073.
Martella, V., Decaro, N., Lorusso, E., Radogna, A., Moschidou, P., Amorisco, F., et al. (2009). Genetic heterogeneity and recombination in canine noroviruses. Journal of Virology, 83(21), 11391-11396.
Martella, V., Lorusso, E., Decaro, N., Elia, G., Radogna, A., D'Abramo, M., et al. (2008). Detection and molecular characterization of a canine norovirus. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 14(8), 1306-1308.
Matthijs, E., Muylkens, B., Mauroy, A., Ziant, D., Delwiche, T., & Thiry, E. (2010). Experimental evidence of recombination in murine noroviruses. Journal of General Virology, 91(11), 2723-2733.
Mattison, K., Harlow, J., Morton, V., Cook, A., Pollari, F., & Bidawid, S. (2010). Enteric viruses in ready-to-eat packaged leafy greens. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 16(11), 1815-1817.
Mattison, K., Shukla, A., Cook, A., Pollari, F., Friendship, R., Kelton, D., et al. (2007). Human noroviruses in swine and cattle. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(8), 1184-1188.
Maunula, L. (2006). Waterborne norovirus outbreaks. Future Virology, 2(1), 101-112.
Maunula, L., Roivainen, M., Keranen, M., Makela, S., Soderberg, K., Summa, M., et al. (2009). Detection of human norovirus from frozen raspberries in a cluster of gastroenteritis outbreaks. Eurosurveillance, 14(49), 16-18.
Maunula, L., Söderberg, K., Vahtera, H., Vuorilehto, V. P., von Bonsdorff, C. H., Valtari, M., et al. (2012). Presence of human noro-and adenoviruses in river and treated wastewater, a longitudinal study and method comparison. Journal of Water and Health, 10(1), 87-99.
Mauroy, A., Scipioni, A., Mathijs, E., Saegerman, C., Mast, J., Bridger, J. C., et al. (2009a). Epidemiological study of bovine norovirus infection by RT-PCR and a VLP-based antibody ELISA. Veterinary Microbiology, 137(3-4), 243-251.
Mauroy, A., Scipioni, A., Mathijs, E., Thys, C., & Thiry, E. (2009b). Molecular detection of kobuviruses and recombinant noroviruses in cattle in continental Europe. Archives of Virology, 154(11), 1841-1845.
Mauroy, A., Scipioni, A., Matthijs, E., Miry, C., Ziant, D., Thys, C., et al. (2008). Noroviruses and sapoviruses in pigs in Belgium. Archives of Virology, 153(10), 1927-1931.
Medici, M. C., Morelli, A., Arcangeletti, M. C., Calderaro, A., De Conto, F., Martinelli, M., et al. (2008). An outbreak of norovirus infection in an Italian residential-care facility for the elderly. Clinical Microbiology and Infection: The Official Publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infections Diseases, 15(1), 97-100.
Mesquita, J. R., & Nascimento, M. S. J. (2009). A foodborne outbreak of norovirus gastroenteritis associated with a christmas dinner in Porto, Portugal, December 2008. Eurosurveillance, 14(41), 19-21.
Meyers, T. R. (1984). Marine bivalve mollusks as reservoirs of viral finfish pathogens: Significance to marine and anadromous finfish aquaculture. Marine Fisheries Review, 46(3), 14-17.
Mijovski, J. Z., Poljsak-Prijatelj, M., Steyer, A., Barlic-Maganja, D., & Koren, S. (2010). Detection and molecular characterisation of noroviruses and sapoviruses in asymptomatic swine and cattle in Slovenian farms. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 10(3), 413-420.
Milnes, A. S., Binns, S. H., Oliver, S. L., & Bridger, J. C. (2007). Retrospective study of noroviruses in samples of diarrhoea from cattle, using the Veterinary Laboratories Agency's Farmfile database. Veterinary Record, 160(10), 326-330.
Moe, C. L. (2007). Waterborne transmission of infectious agents. In C. J. Hurst, R. L. Crawford, J. L. Garland, D. A. Lipson, A. L. Mills, & L. D. Stetzenbach (Eds.), Manual of environmental microbiology (pp. 222-248). Washington, DC: ASM Press.
Moe, C. L. (2008). Preventing norovirus transmission: How should we handle food handlers? Clinical Infectious Diseases, 48(1), 38-40.
Mokhtari, A., & Jaykus, L. A. (2009). Quantitative exposure model for the transmission of norovirus in retail food preparation. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 133(1-2), 38-47.
Morioka, S., Sakata, T., Tamaki, A., Shioji, T., Funaki, A., Yamamoto, Y., et al. (2006). A food-borne norovirus outbreak at a primary school in Wakayama Prefecture. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 59(3), 205-207.
Nakamura, K., Saga, Y., Iwai, M., Obara, M., Horimoto, E., Hasegawa, S., et al. (2010). Frequent detection of noroviruses and sapoviruses in swine population and high genetic diversity of porcine sapovirus in Japan, during fiscal year 2008. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 48(4), 1215-1222.
Nenonen, N. P., Hannoun, C., Olsson, M. B., & Bergstrom, T. (2009). Molecular analysis of an oyster-related norovirus outbreak. Journal of Clinical Virology, 45(2), 105-108.
Ng, T. L., Chan, P. P., Phua, T. H., Loh, J. P., Yip, R., Wong, C., et al. (2005). Oyster-associated outbreaks of Norovirus gastroenteritis in Singapore. Journal of Infection, 51(5), 413-418.
Nishida, T., Nishio, O., Kato, M., Chuma, T., Kato, H., Iwata, H., et al. (2007). Genotyping and quantitation of noroviruses in oysters from Two Distinct Sea areas in Japan. Microbiology and Immunology, 51(2), 177-184.
Noda, M., Fukuda, S., & Nishio, O. (2008). Statistical analysis of attack rate in norovirus foodborne outbreaks. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 122(1-2), 216-220.
Nordgren, J., Kindberg, E., Lindgren, P. E., Matussek, A., & Svensson, L. (2010). Norovirus gastroenteritis outbreak with a secretor-independent susceptibility pattern, Sweden. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 16(1), 81-87.
O'Brien, S. J., Gillespie, I. A., Sivanesan, M. A., Elson, R., Hughes, C., & Adak, G. K. (2006). Publication bias in foodborne outbreaks of infectious intestinal disease and its implications for evidence-based food policy. England and Wales 1992-2003. Epidemiology and Infection, 134(04), 667-674.
Ohwaki, K., Nagashima, H., Aoki, M., Aoki, H., & Yano, E. (2009). A foodborne norovirus outbreak at a hospital and an attached long-term care facility. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 62(6), 450-454.
Oliver, S. L., Brown, D. W. G., Green, J., & Bridger, J. C. (2004). A chimeric bovine enteric calicivirus: Evidence for genomic recombination in genogroup III of the Norovirus genus of the Caliciviridae. Virology, 326(2), 231-239.
Oliver, S. L., Dastjerdi, A. M., Wong, S., El-Attar, L., Gallimore, C., Brown, D. W. G., et al. (2003). Molecular characterization of bovine enteric caliciviruses: a distinct third genogroup of noroviruses (Norwalk-like viruses) unlikely to be of risk to humans. Journal of Virology, 77(4), 2789-2798.
Oogane, T., Hirata, A., Funatogawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sato, T., & Kimura, H. (2008). Food poisoning outbreak caused by norovirus GII/4 in school lunch, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 61(5), 423-424.
Otto, P. H., Clarke, I. N., Lambden, P. R., Salim, O., Reetz, J., & Liebler-Tenorio, E. M. (2011). Infection of calves with bovine norovirus GIII. 1 strain jena virus: an experimental model to study the pathogenesis of norovirus infection. Journal of Virology, 85(22), 12013-12021.
Ozawa, K., Oka, T., Takeda, N., & Hansman, G. S. (2007). Norovirus infections in symptomatic and asymptomatic food handlers in Japan. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 45(12), 3996-4005.
Parasidis, T., Divari, E., Fatouros, N., & Vantarakis, A. (2007). Outbreak of acute gastroenteritis in Greece during a school excursion, April 2007. Euro Surveillance, 12(7), E0705-E0707.
Park, S. I., Jeong, C., Kim, H. H., Park, S. H., Park, S. J., Hyun, B. H., et al. (2007). Molecular epidemiology of bovine noroviruses in South Korea. Veterinary Microbiology, 124(1-2), 125-133.
Parshionikar, S. U., Willian-True, S., Fout, G. S., Robbins, D. E., Seys, S. A., Cassady, J. D., et al. (2003). Waterborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with a norovirus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69(9), 5263-5268.
Patel, M. M., Hall, A. J., Vinje, J., & Parashar, U. D. (2009). Noroviruses: A comprehensive review. Journal of Clinical Virology: The Official Publication of the Pan American Society for Clinical Virology, 44(1), 1-8.
Payne, K., Hall, M., Lutzke, M., Armstrong, C., & King, J. (2006). Multisite outbreak of norovirus associated with a franchise restaurant-Kent County, Michigan, May 2005. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55(14), 395-397.
Pérez-Sautu, U., Sano, D., Guix, S., Kasimir, G., Pinto, R. M., & Bosch, A. (2012). Human norovirus occurrence and diversity in the Llobregat river catchment, Spain. Environmental Microbiology, 14(2), 494-502.
Phan, T. G., Kaneshi, K., Ueda, Y., Nakaya, S., Nishimura, S., Yamamoto, A., et al. (2007). Genetic heterogeneity, evolution, and recombination in noroviruses. Journal of Medical Virology, 79(9), 1388-1400.
Phillips, G., Tam, C. C., Rodrigues, L. C., & Lopman, B. (2010). Prevalence and characteristics of asymptomatic norovirus infection in the community in England. Epidemiology and Infection, 139(11), 1-5.
Pinto, P., Wang, Q., Chen, N., Dubovi, E. J., Daniels, J. B., Millward, L. M., et al. (2012). Discovery and genomic characterization of noroviruses from a gastroenteritis outbreak in domestic cats in the US. PLoS One, 7(2), e-32739.
Prato, R., Lopalco, P. L., Chironna, M., Barbuti, G., Germinario, C., & Quarto, M. (2004). Norovirus gastroenteritis general outbreak associated with raw shellfish consumption in south Italy. BMC Infectious Disease, 6(37), 1-6.
Reuter, G., Biro, H., & Szucs, G. (2007). Enteric caliciviruses in domestic pigs in Hungary. Archives of Virology, 152(3), 611-614.
Reuter, G., Pankovics, P., & Egyed, L. (2009). Detection of genotype 1 and 2 bovine noroviruses in Hungary. Veterinary Record, 165(18), 537-538.
Rizzo, C., Di Bartolo, I., Santantonio, M., Coscia, M. F., Monno, R., De Vito, D., et al. (2007). Epidemiological and virological investigation of a Norovirus outbreak in a resort in Puglia, Italy. BMC Infectious Diseases, 7, 135.
Rockx, B. H. G., Bogers, W., Heeney, J. L., van Amerongen, G., & Koopmans, M. P. G. (2005). Experimental norovirus infections in non-human primates. Journal of Medical Virology, 75(2), 313-320.
Rodriguez-Lazaro, D., Cook, N., Ruggeri, F. M., Sellwood, J., Nasser, A., Nascimento, M. S. J., et al. (2011). Virus hazards from food, water and other contaminated environments. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 36(4), 786-814.
Rohayem, J. (2009). Norovirus seasonality and the potential impact of climate change. Clinical Microbiology & Infection, 15(6), 524-527.
Rosenthal, N. A., LE Lee, Vermeulen, B. A. J., Hedberg, K., Keene, W. E., Widdowson, M. A., et al. (2011). Epidemiological and genetic characteristics of norovirus outbreaks in long-term care facilities, 2003-2006. Epidemiology and Infection, 139(2), 286-294.
Saif, L. J., Bohl, E. H., Theil, K. W., Cross, R. F., & House, J. A. (1980). Rotavirus-like, calicivirus-like, and 23-nm virus-like particles associated with diarrhea in young pigs. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 12(1), 105-111.
Sakon, N., Yamazaki, K., Yoda, T., Kanki, M., Otake, T., & Tsukamoto, T. (2005). A norovirus outbreak of gastroenteritis linked to packed lunches. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 58(4), 253.
Sala, M. R., Cardenosa, N., Arias, C., Llovet, T., Recasens, A., Dominguez, A., et al. (2005). An outbreak of food poisoning due to a genogroup I norovirus. Epidemiology and Infection, 133(1), 187-191.
Schets, F. M., van Wijnen, J. H., Schijven, J. F., Schoon, H., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2008). Monitoring of waterborne pathogens in surface waters in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and the potential health risk associated with exposure to Cryptosporidium and Giardia in these waters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(7), 2069-2078.
Schmid, D., Stuger, H. P., Lederer, I., Pichler, A. M., Kainz-Arnfelser, G., Schreier, E., et al. (2007). A foodborne norovirus outbreak due to manually prepared salad, Austria 2006. Infection, 35(4), 232-239.
Scipioni, A., Mauroy, A., Vinje, J., & Thiry, E. (2008). Animal noroviruses. The Veterinary Journal, 178(1), 32-45.
Sekla, L., Stackiw, W., Dzogan, S., & Sargeant, D. (1989). Foodborne gastroenteritis due to Norwalk virus in a Winnipeg hotel. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 140(12), 1461-1464.
Shen, Q., Zhang, W., Yang, S., Chen, Y., Ning, H., Shan, T., et al. (2009). Molecular detection and prevalence of porcine caliciviruses in eastern China from 2008 to 2009. Archives of Virology, 154(10), 1625-1630.
Showell, D., Sundkvist, T., Reacher, M., & Gray, J. (2007). Norovirus outbreak associated with canteen salad in Suffolk, United Kingdom. Euro Surveillance, 12(11), E0711296.
Siebenga, J. J., Lemey, P., Pond, S. L. K., Rambaut, A., Vennema, H., & Koopmans, M. (2010). Phylodynamic reconstruction reveals norovirus GII. 4 epidemic expansions and their molecular determinants. PLoS Pathogens, 6(5), e-1000884.
Siebenga, J. J., Vennema, H., Duizer, E., & Koopmans, M. P. G. (2007). Gastroenteritis caused by norovirus GGII. 4, the Netherlands, 1994-2005. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 13(1), 144-146.
Siebenga, J. J., Vennema, H., Zheng, D. P., Vinje, J., Lee, B. E., Pang, X. L., et al. (2009). Norovirus illness is a global problem: Emergence and spread of norovirus GII. 4 variants, 2001-2007. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 200(5), 802-812.
Smiley, J. R., Hoet, A. E., Travén, M., Tsunemitsu, H., & Saif, L. J. (2003). Reverse transcription-PCR assays for detection of bovine enteric caliciviruses (BEC) and analysis of the genetic relationships among BEC and human caliciviruses. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 41(7), 3089-3099.
Springthorpe, S., & Sattar, S. A. (2007). Chapter 6 Virus removal during drinking water treatment. vol. 17, 109-126.
Stals, A., Baert, L., De Keuckelaere, A., van Coillie, E., & Uyttendaele, M. (2011a). Evaluation of a norovirus detection methodology for ready-to-eat foods. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 145(2-3), 420-425.
Stals, A., Baert, L., Jasson, V., van Coillie, E., & Uyttendaele, M. (2011b). Screening of fruit products for norovirus and the difficulty of interpreting positive PCR results. Journal of Food Protection, 74(3), 425-431.
Stals, A., Baert, L., van Coillie, E., & Uyttendaele, M. (2011c). Evaluation of a norovirus detection methodology for soft red fruits. Food Microbiology, 28(1), 52-58.
Steele, M., & Odumeru, J. (2004). Irrigation water as source of foodborne pathogens on fruit and vegetables. Journal of Food Protection, 67(12), 2839-2849.
Sugieda, M., Nagaoka, H., Kakishima, Y., Ohshita, T., Nakamura, S., & Nakajima, S. (1998). Detection of Norwalk-like virus genes in the caecum contents of pigs. Archives of Virology, 143(6), 1215-1221.
Summa, M., von Bonsdorff, C. H., & Maunula, L. (2012a). Evaluation of four virus recovery methods for detecting noroviruses on fresh lettuce, sliced ham, and frozen raspberries. Journal of Virological Methods, 183(2), 154-160.
Summa, M., von Bonsdorff, C. H., & Maunula, L. (2012b). Pet dogs, a transmission route for human noroviruses? Journal of Clinical Virology, 53(3), 244-247.
Takanashi, S., Wang, Q., Chen, N., Shen, Q., Jung, K., Zhang, Z., et al. (2011). Characterization of emerging GII. g/GII. 12 noroviruses from a gastroenteritis outbreak in the United States in 2010. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 49(9), 3234-3244.
Takkinen, J. (2006). Recent norovirus outbreaks on river and seagoing cruise ships in Europe. Euro Surveillance, 11(6), e-0606152.
Terio, V., Martella, V., Moschidou, P., Di Pinto, P., Tantillo, G., & Buonavoglia, C. (2010). Norovirus in retail shellfish. Food Microbiology, 27(1), 29-32.
Teunis, P. F. M., Rutjes, S. A., Westrell, T., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2009). Characterization of drinking water treatment for virus risk assessment. Water Research, 43(2), 395-404.
Thackray, L. B., Wobus, C. E., Chachu, K. A., Liu, B., Alegre, E. R., Henderson, K. S., et al. (2007). Murine noroviruses comprising a single genogroup exhibit biological diversity despite limited sequence divergence. Journal of Virology, 81(19), 10460-10473.
Todd, E. C. D., Greig, J. D., Bartleson, C. A., & Michaels, B. S. (2009). Outbreaks where food workers have been implicated in the spread of foodborne disease. Part 6. Transmission and survival of pathogens in the food processing and preparation environment. Journal of Food Protection, 72(1), 202-219.
Ueki, Y., Sano, D., Watanabe, T., Akiyama, K., & Omura, T. (2005). Norovirus pathway in water environment estimated by genetic analysis of strains from patients of gastroenteritis, sewage, treated wastewater, river water and oysters. Water Research, 39(18), 4271-4280.
Ueki, Y., Shoji, M., Suto, A., Tanabe, T., Okimura, Y., Kikuchi, Y., et al. (2007). Persistence of caliciviruses in artificially contaminated oysters during depuration. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73(17), 5698-5701.
van den Berg, H., Lodder, W., van der Poel, W., Vennema, H., & de Roda Husman, A. M. (2005). Genetic diversity of noroviruses in raw and treated sewage water. Research in Microbiology, 156(4), 532-540.
van der Poel, W. H., van der Heide, H. R., Verschoor, F., Gelderblom, H., Vinje, J., & Koopmans, M. P. (2003). Epidemiology of Norwalk-like virus infections in cattle in The Netherlands. Veterinary Microbiology, 92(4), 297-309.
van der Poel, W. H., Vinje, J., van Der Heide, R., Herrera, M. I., Vivo, A., & Koopmans, M. P. (2000). Norwalk-like calicivirus genes in farm animals. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 6(1), 36-41.
Vega, E., Garland, J., & Pillai, S. D. (2008). Electrostatic forces control nonspecific virus attachment to lettuce. Journal of Food Protection, 71(3), 522-529.
Vega, E., Smith, J., Garland, J., Matos, A., & Pillai, S. D. (2005). Variability of virus attachment patterns to butterhead lettuce. Journal of Food Protection, 68(10), 2112-2117.
Verhoef, L., Boxman, I. L., Duizer, E., Rutjes, S. A., Vennema, H., Friesema, I. H. M., et al. (2008). Multiple exposures during a norovirus outbreak on a river-cruise sailing through Europe, 2006. Euro Surveillance, 12(1), 246-252.
Verhoef, L. P. B., Kroneman, A., van Duynhoven, Y., Boshuizen, H., van Pelt, W., & Koopmans, M. (2009). Selection tool for foodborne norovirus outbreaks. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 15(1), 31-38.
Verhoef, L., Vennema, H., van Pelt, W., Lees, D., Boshuizen, H., Henshilwood, K., et al. (2010). Use of norovirus genotype profiles to differentiate origins of foodborne outbreaks. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 16(4), 617-621.
Vinje, J. (2010). A norovirus vaccine on the horizon? The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 202(11), 1623-1625.
Vivancos, R., Shroufi, A., Sillis, M., Aird, H., Gallimore, C. I., Myers, L., et al. (2009). Food-related norovirus outbreak among people attending two barbeques: Epidemiological, virological, and environmental investigation. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 13(5), 629-635.
Wadl, M., Scherer, K., Nielsen, S., Diedrich, S., Ellerbroek, L., Frank, C., et al. (2010). Food-borne norovirus-outbreak at a military base, Germany, 2009. BMC Infectious Diseases, 10, 30.
Wang, Q. H., Costantini, V., & Saif, L. J. (2007). Porcine enteric caliciviruses: Genetic and antigenic relatedness to human caliciviruses, diagnosis and epidemiology. Vaccine, 25(30), 5453-5466.
Wang, Q. H., Han, M. G., Cheetham, S., Souza, M., Funk, J. A., & Saif, L. J. (2005a). Porcine noroviruses related to human noroviruses. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(12), 1874-1881.
Wang, Q. H., Han, M. G., Funk, J. A., Bowman, G., Janies, D. A., & Saif, L. J. (2005b). Genetic diversity and recombination of porcine sapoviruses. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 43(12), 5963-5972.
Wang, Q. H., Souza, M., Funk, J. A., Zhang, W., & Saif, L. J. (2006). Prevalence of noroviruses and sapoviruses in swine of various ages determined by reverse transcription-PCR and microwell hybridization assays. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 44(6), 2057-2062.
Webby, R. J., Carville, K. S., Kirk, M. D., Greening, G., Ratcliff, R. M., Crerar, S. K., et al. (2007). Internationally distributed frozen oyster meat causing multiple outbreaks of norovirus infection in Australia. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 44(8), 1026-1031.
Wei, J., Jin, Y., Sims, T., & Kniel, K. E. (2010). Manure-and biosolids-resident murine norovirus 1 attachment to and internalization by Romaine lettuce. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(2), 578-583.
Wei, J., Jin, Y., Sims, T., & Kniel, K. E. (2011). Internalization of murine norovirus 1 into Lactuca sativa during irrigation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 77(7), 2508-2512.
Wei, J., & Kniel, K. E. (2010). Pre-harvest viral contamination of crops originating from fecal matter. Food and Environmental Virology, 2(4), 195-206.
Westrell, T., Teunis, P., van den Berg, H., Lodder, W., Ketelaars, H., Stenström, T. A., et al. (2006). Short-and long-term variations of norovirus concentrations in the Meuse river during a 2-year study period. Water Research, 40(14), 2613-2620.
White, K., Osterholm, M. T., Mariott, J., Lawrence, D. H., Ristinen, T., & Greenberg, H. B. (1986). A foodborne outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis evidence for post-recovery transmission. American Journal of Epidemiology, 124(1), 120-126.
Wick, J. Y. (2012). Norovirus: Noxious in nursing facilities: Almost unavoidable. The Consultant Pharmacist, 27(2), 98-104.
Widdowson, M. A., Rockx, B., Schepp, R., van der Poel, W. H. M., Vinje, J., van Duynhoven, Y. T., et al. (2005a). Detection of serum antibodies to bovine norovirus in veterinarians and the general population in the Netherlands. Journal of Medical Virology, 76(1), 119-128.
Widdowson, M. A., Sulka, A., Bulens, S. N., Beard, R. S., Chaves, S. S., Hammond, R., et al. (2005b). Norovirus and foodborne disease, United States, 1991-2000. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 11(1), 95-102.
Wise, A. G., Monroe, S. S., Hanson, L. E., Grooms, D. L., Sockett, D., & Maes, R. K. (2004). Molecular characterization of noroviruses detected in diarrheic stools of Michigan and Wisconsin dairy calves: Circulation of two distinct subgroups. Virus Research, 100(2), 165-177.
Wolf, S., Williamson, W., Hewitt, J., Lin, S., Rivera-Aban, M., Ball, A., et al. (2009). Molecular detection of norovirus in sheep and pigs in New Zealand farms. Veterinary Microbiology, 133(1-2), 184-189.
Wolf, S., Williamson, W. M., Hewitt, J., Rivera-Aban, M., Lin, S., Ball, A., et al. (2007). Sensitive multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for the detection of human and animal noroviruses in clinical and environmental samples. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73(17), 5464-5470.
Woode, G. N., & Bridger, J. C. (1978). Isolation of small viruses resembling astroviruses and caliciviruses from acute enteritis of calves. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 11(4), 441-452.
World Health Organization (2008). Foodborne disease outbreaks: guidelines for investigation and control.
Yang, Y., Xia, M., Tan, M., Huang, P., Zhong, W., Pang, X. L., et al. (2010). Genetic and phenotypic characterization of GII-4 noroviruses that circulated during 1987 to 2008. Journal of Virology, 84(18), 9595-9607.
Yin, Y., Tohya, Y., Ogawa, Y., Numazawa, D., Kato, K., & Akashi, H. (2006). Genetic analysis of calicivirus genomes detected in intestinal contents of piglets in Japan. Archives of Virology, 151(9), 1749-1759.
Yoder, J. S., Blackburn, B. G., Craun, G. F., Hill, V., Levy, D. A., Chen, N., et al. (2004). Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks associated with recreational water-United States, 2001-2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53(8), 1-22.
Zainazor, C. T., Hidayah, M. S. N., Chai, L. C., Tunung, R., Ghazali, F. M., & Son, R. (2010). The scenario of norovirus contamination in food and food handlers. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 20(2), 229-237.
Zakhour, M., Maalouf, H., Di Bartolo, I., Haugarreau, L., Le Guyader, F. S., Ruvoen-Clouet, N., et al. (2010). Bovine norovirus: Carbohydrate ligand, environmental contamination, and potential cross-species transmission via oysters. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 76(19), 6404-6411.
Zheng, D. P., Ando, T., Fankhauser, R. L., Beard, R. S., Glass, R. I., & Monroe, S. S. (2006). Norovirus classification and proposed strain nomenclature. Virology, 346(2), 312-323.
Zheng, D. P., Widdowson, M. A., Glass, R. I., & Vinje, J. (2009). Molecular epidemiology of GII. 4 noroviruses in the US between 1994 and 2006. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 48(1), 168-177.
Zomer, T. P., De Jong, B., Kühlmann-Berenzon, S., Nyrén, O., Svenungsson, B., Hedlund, K. O., et al. (2009). A norovirus outbreak at a manufacturing company. Epidemiology and Infection, 138, 501-506.