L'importance des coopératives dans le commerce équitableHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Report (2009) Dans cette huitième e-note, Benjamin Huybrechts (Centre d’Economie Sociale, HEC Management School, Université de Liège) analyse la relation entre le commerce équitable et l’entrepreneuriat coopératif. Il ... [more ▼] Dans cette huitième e-note, Benjamin Huybrechts (Centre d’Economie Sociale, HEC Management School, Université de Liège) analyse la relation entre le commerce équitable et l’entrepreneuriat coopératif. Il en conclut que le modèle du commerce équitable a tout à gagner à tenter d’appliquer les principes d’équité, de justice et de démocratie qu’il promeut également à l’interne des organisations, tant au Sud qu’au Nord. A l’inverse, le mouvement coopératif a tout à gagner à s’appuyer sur le commerce équitable pour donner un nouveau souffle à ses principes et à ses acteurs dans un contexte de dialogue Nord-Sud. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 57 (5 ULg) Does Social Innovation vary with the Organisational Form? Exploring the Diversity of Fair Trade Social Enterprises in EuropeHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Conference (2009, September) A common view in the literature on social entrepreneurship and social enterprise is to highlight the fact that social innovation crosses the organizational forms. But does that social innovation should be ... [more ▼] A common view in the literature on social entrepreneurship and social enterprise is to highlight the fact that social innovation crosses the organizational forms. But does that social innovation should be considered regardless of the organizational form? Fair Trade (FT) offers a quite interesting example of both a social innovation and a field in which diverse organizational forms coexist. My research questions are twofold: (1) what are the different types of organizational forms that underlie social innovation in the FT sector?; (2) do these different forms bring different types of social innovation? The methodology consists of interviews with the leaders of 57 Fair Trade Social Enterprises (FTSEs) in four European regions: Belgium, France (Rhône-Alpes), United Kingdom (England) and Italy (Rome). The findings show that the legal forms and governance models–the two elements of the organizational form considered here–can be combined into five categories of organizational forms: individual, manager-owned business, volunteer-based, multi-stakeholder cooperative and group. These categories seem to be linked, at least to a certain extent, to the age of the FTSE and to its goals. Certain forms seem to signal a particular type of social innovation. Volunteer-based FTSEs use education and advocacy as the main channel to pursue social change at the global level, and see the partnerships with the producers in the South as a vehicle to support the former goal. Individual and business-form FTSEs focus on offering benefits to the producers through a profitable commercial activity. And multi-stakeholder cooperatives and groups generally seek to combine both types of social innovation. However, nuances exist and lead to considering the organisational form as vehicles that may serve various purposes according to the context and the entrepreneurs’ profiles. I suggest three theoretical frameworks to interpret the diversity of organizational forms and its link with the logics of social innovation. Neo-institutional economics allow to see organizational diversity as the result of the production of different types of goods within the “FT bundle”. New institutionalism in organizational analysis emphasizes organizational diversity as the result of either weak (or non-existent) or multiple institutional logics. And institutional entrepreneurship highlights the ability of FTSEs to shape the environment in a way that legitimizes their own way of conceiving social innovation. I conclude that these three frameworks offer complementary explanations to organizational diversity and that the latter is an asset rather than an obstacle for carrying social innovation in multiple and complementary ways. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 71 (9 ULg) Fair Trade organizations as examples of social enterprises? Evidence from four European regionsHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Conference (2008, July 09) Given their multidimensional missions, combining economic, social and sometimes political dimensions, FTOs have been proposed quite early as examples of “social enterprise” (SE). Such link has been made ... [more ▼] Given their multidimensional missions, combining economic, social and sometimes political dimensions, FTOs have been proposed quite early as examples of “social enterprise” (SE). Such link has been made in a particularly explicit way in the United Kingdom, by both academics (e.g. Martin and Osberg, 2007; Nicholls, 2006) and practitioners. Following Dart (2004), the trend for FTOs to depict themselves (and to be depicted) as SEs probably stems from a research of legitimacy towards an environment that promotes values of entrepreneurship and innovation. However, if FTOs are considered as obvious examples of SE, there still needs to be explained carefully why this is the case, and to what extent. Is it the involvement in FT that makes the enterprises “social”, or is it a set of particular organisational characteristics shared by most FTOs, or is it a combination of both? If the fact of “doing Fair Trade” is not a sufficient criterion to generate a SE dynamics – as we believe it –, then what is it in FTOs that makes these organisations eligible as SEs? The answers to these questions are closely linked to the framework used to define SE. While we try to consider different conceptualisations of SE in our analysis (part 1), we pay a special attention to the “multiple goal” and “multiple stakeholders” features put forward by the authors of the “EMES network”. In part 2, we recall the basics of the FT concept and the historical evolution of the movement. We then present our empirical data on FTOs in four European regions. Finally, we confront these data to some of the SE features identified in the literature (part 3). In this analysis, we particularly try to examine to what extent FTOs pursue multiple goals and involve multiple stakeholders, and how such organisational characteristics could be linked to each other and to other features such as resources, age and size. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 56 (4 ULg) Fair Trade Organisations in Europe: A Significant Field of Social Enterprise?Huybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Conference (2008, June 26) With the help of examples of FTOs in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK, we have applied some of the features of SE approaches to the context of FT. It appears that FTOs are particularly significant ... [more ▼] With the help of examples of FTOs in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK, we have applied some of the features of SE approaches to the context of FT. It appears that FTOs are particularly significant examples of SEs, combining in different ways economic, social and sometimes political dimensions. From more NGO-like to more business-like configurations, all FTOs of our sample seem to respect the key features of SEs, under which the primacy of 23 the social mission, the limited (if any) profit distribution, the focus on innovation and at least some degree of self-financing. Nevertheless, there is some heterogeneity in terms of FTOs’ goals and activities. While all FTOs seem to combine, at least, economic and social dimensions – although at varying degrees and forms –, the political dimension is not present in the same way for all FTOs. Pioneer FTOs generally conduct education and advocacy activities in a developed and explicit way. Newcomer FTOs, however, have heterogeneous profiles in terms of political involvement, as the positioning seems to depend much on the entrepreneur’s choices. In terms of governance, practices are also very diverse in terms of leaders’ profiles, legal forms and stakeholders’ involvement in the decision-making structures. Some FTOs are quasi-individual ventures and are thus close to some American approaches of SE. Other FTOs are much more multi-stakeholder and fit better in the EMES conceptualisation of SE. The governance structure also seems to reflect to a certain extent the positioning of the FTO towards the different dimensions of FT. FTOs led by activists and having volunteers or partner NGOs on their Board seem to have a stronger focus on non-economic (social and political) goals. In the other sense, very economic-oriented FTOs are often run by managers with a business background and governed by their manager and/or their shareholders. As a conclusion, this article has tried to provide some theoretical and empirical support to the implicit link that has been established, both in the academic world and in the field practice, between FT and SE. The diversity of the FT sector echoes the rich diversity of SEs’ practices and conceptualisations. In such sense, considering FTOs as SEs is probably made easier because of the wide and flexible theoretical framework of SE – few authors claiming to have a “definition” of SE. If more restricted conceptions of SE were to emerge – e.g., the limitation of SE to formal Third Sector legal forms, or to 100% market financing –, then part of the FTOs would be excluded from the SE area. In such sense, FT appears as an important laboratory the evolutions of which can feed the theoretical construction of SE. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 36 (3 ULg) Le positionnement des organisations de commerce équitable entre l’économique, le social et le politique : essai de typologie et illustrations en Belgique, en France et au Royaume-UniHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Conference (2008, June 05) Parallèlement à la croissance exponentielle de ses ventes et de sa notoriété, le mouvement du commerce équitable (CE) connaît une diversification croissante de son paysage organisationnel (Nicholls & Opal ... [more ▼] Parallèlement à la croissance exponentielle de ses ventes et de sa notoriété, le mouvement du commerce équitable (CE) connaît une diversification croissante de son paysage organisationnel (Nicholls & Opal, 2005; Wilkinson, 2007). Alors qu’à ses débuts, le mouvement était porté par des organisations militantes relativement homogènes, celles-ci se sont progressivement diversifiées, tandis que de nouveaux acteurs sont apparus avec une dynamique commerciale plus marquée (Gendron, 2004; Moore, 2004; Renard, 2003). Si toutes les organisations de commerce équitable (OCE) ont en commun de chercher à soutenir des organisations de producteurs au Sud à travers une activité commerciale « équitable » dans le cadre d'un développement durable Nord-Sud, les stratégies adoptées peuvent fortement différer (Wilkinson, 2007). Ainsi, en caricaturant quelque peu, certaines OCE misent principalement sur le partenariat commercial, encadré par un processus de labellisation, et prônent un développement essentiellement quantitatif de la filière, notamment à travers la distribution des produits en grandes surfaces. D'autres, par contre, insistent plus sur la qualité des partenariats avec les producteurs marginalisés et misent sur les activités de sensibilisation des citoyens et de lobbying auprès des pouvoirs publics dans le but de modifier en profondeur les règles du commerce international. Quelle que soit leur stratégie, les OCE sont inévitablement confrontées aux tensions traversant l’ensemble du mouvement équitable. Ces tensions semblent pouvoir se résumer, globalement et malgré certaines nuances dans les appellations, à deux grands pôles : le pôle économique, de « marché » d’une part, et le pôle socio-politique, de « solidarité » d’autre part. Ce qui différencie les OCE, c’est donc la manière de gérer cette tension et de se positionner par rapport à ces différentes logiques. L’objectif de cette contribution est précisément d’éclairer ces différents positionnements organisationnels sur le « continuum » entre l’économique et le socio-politique. Nous commençons par présenter ce continuum du CE sur lequel les acteurs se positionnent. Nous proposons ensuite différents indicateurs organisationnels susceptibles d'appréhender ces positionnements. A partir de la théorie des organisations appliquée à différentes formes organisationnelles, nous nous penchons sur les objectifs organisationnels, les ressources, le statut juridique et la composition des éventuelles instances de gouvernance (principalement l'assemblée générale et le conseil d'administration). Nous rappelons dans quelle mesure, selon la littérature, ces indicateurs peuvent être révélateurs du positionnement stratégique de l'organisation. Ensuite, nous proposons quatre profils organisationnels possibles pour gérer les tensions entre les différents pôles du CE. Chacun de ces profils est caractérisé par rapport aux indicateurs organisationnels proposés : objectifs déclarés, types de ressources mobilisées (ventes, dons, subventions, bénévolat), statut juridique (association, coopérative, entreprise individuelle, société anonyme,...) et composition des instances de gouvernance (types de parties prenantes impliquées). Chaque profil est ensuite illustré par des exemples d'organisations provenant de trois études de terrain réalisées auprès d’OCE en Belgique, en France (dans la région Rhône-Alpes) et au Royaume-Uni. Enfin, après une synthèse de ces quatre profils, nous nous penchons sur leurs implications sur l’avenir du mouvement équitable. Nous cherchons à percevoir l'évolution des stratégies de positionnement des OCE de manière à distinguer les perspectives futures de la filière. La question posée est de savoir si les différents profils de positionnement peuvent continuer à coexister de manière complémentaire ou si, au contraire, ils mènent à l'apparition de différentes formes de CE n'ayant plus en commun que leur appellation. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 123 (6 ULg) The evolution of the Fair Trade organisational landscape in France and in BelgiumHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Conference (2008, May 14) Parallel to the dramatic growth of its sales and public awareness, the Fair Trade movement has seen its organisational landscape become increasingly diversified. While Fair Trade nonprofit pioneers were ... [more ▼] Parallel to the dramatic growth of its sales and public awareness, the Fair Trade movement has seen its organisational landscape become increasingly diversified. While Fair Trade nonprofit pioneers were initially relatively homogeneous in terms of goals and structures, the economic development of the initiative, driven by the sales of Fair Trade products in mainstream distribution channels, has led to the emergence of a multitude of new actors with much more heterogeneous behaviours – in spite of the general trend towards a stronger market orientation – (Gendron, 2004; Moore, 2004; Nicholls & Opal, 2005; Renard, 2003). When observing the evolution of Fair Trade organisations (FTOs), i.e., organisations claiming to be totally dedicated to Fair Trade, three trends can be observed: Fair Trade pioneers have adopted more business-oriented profiles and more complex and specialised organisational structures; New small Fair Trade businesses have emerged with a stronger economic specialisation on a particular product or distribution channel ; « Old » and « new » FTOs increasingly gather into networks with two types of purposes: to promote Fair Trade and to have a minimum political representation (advocacy networks) and to face common socio-economic challenges (socio-economic networks). The goal of this contribution is to analyse these three trends with the help of a sample of nearly fourty FTOs in Belgium and in the French Rhône-Alpes region. We can thus illustrate the three trends on the basis of both general observations and precise examples. We also try to compare the two regions and to explore to what extent the evolution of FTOs reveals more global trends within the Fair Trade movement. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 58 (2 ULg) The Dynamics of Fair Trade as a Mixed-form Market; Huybrechts, Benjamin ![]() in Journal of Business Ethics (2008), 81(4), 733-750 This article analyses the Fair Trade sector as a “mixed-form market,” i.e., a market in which different types of players (in this case, nonprofit, co-operative and for-profit organizations) coexist and ... [more ▼] This article analyses the Fair Trade sector as a “mixed-form market,” i.e., a market in which different types of players (in this case, nonprofit, co-operative and for-profit organizations) coexist and compete. The purposes of this article are (1) to understand the factors that have led Fair Trade to become a mixed-form market and (2) to propose some trails to understand the market dynamics that result from the interactions between the different types of players. We start by defining briefly Fair Trade, its different dimensions (including the “fair” quality of the products) and its organizational landscape, focusing on the distinction between the pioneer “Alternative Trading Organizations” and the second-mover companies. Then, we recall the theoretical emergence factors for each type of organization (nonprofit, co-operative and for-profit) and apply these emergence factors to the context of Fair Trade. This analysis allows us to capture the specificities of each type of operator with regard to Fair Trade and, thus, to have a better understanding of the dynamics in the sector. Such dynamics includes competition, but also conflict and partnership. Our analysis includes elements on ethical imitation, consumers’ behaviors, effects on welfare and the role of the government. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 62 (8 ULg) Are Fair Trade Organizations necessarily Social Enterprises?Huybrechts, Benjamin ; Defourny, Jacques ![]() in Social Enterprise Journal (2008), 4(3), 186-201 Purpose – Fair trade organisations (FTOs) have been taken quite early as examples of Social Enterprises (SE) and have contributed to the shaping of the SE concept. The purpose of this paper is to examine ... [more ▼] Purpose – Fair trade organisations (FTOs) have been taken quite early as examples of Social Enterprises (SE) and have contributed to the shaping of the SE concept. The purpose of this paper is to examine more deeply the link between FTOs and SE, both at a conceptual and at an empirical level. Design/methodology/approach – First, different theoretical frameworks of SE are introduced and confront FT to each of these frameworks. The second step is an empirical study of FTOs across four European countries to illustrate and deepen the links between FT and SE, focusing on the goals and the governance structures of FTOs. Findings – All the FTOs combine in some way economic, social and sometimes also political goals. FTOs are thus coherent to the “hybrid goals” nature of SEs. FTOs' governance is also quite specific and often innovative in terms of organisational architecture and stakeholders' involvement. Some FTOs are closer to the European – participatory – approach while others are closer to US – individual – approaches. Finally, the governance structures of FTOs seem to reflect quite well their goal mix. Research limitations/implications – This paper provides a more solid basis for the often implicit link between FT and SE. Future researches could use this work to explore specific topics of the SE literature in the context of FT (e.g. stakeholders' involvement). The FT example could also be used to examine further the shifting boundaries of the SE reality. Originality/value – The originality of this paper is to apply the SE concept to a specific field and to show how, within this field, there is at the same time a diversity of organisations, reflecting the diversity of SE approaches; and a range of specific features (especially in terms of goal mix and governance) distinguishing SEs from other types of organisations. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 151 (16 ULg) The Governance of Fair Trade Organizations. A Focus on Stakeholders' RepresentationHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() in HEC Working Paper (2007), 200706/02 This article analyzes the governance structures of Fair Trade Organizations (FTOs), i.e. the organizations (nonprofit, co-operative or for-profit firms) exclusively dedicated to the import, distribution ... [more ▼] This article analyzes the governance structures of Fair Trade Organizations (FTOs), i.e. the organizations (nonprofit, co-operative or for-profit firms) exclusively dedicated to the import, distribution and/or labeling of Fair Trade products. Among the possible governance issues, I have chosen to investigate a recent topic in the study of social enterprises: the involvement of different stakeholder groups on the Board of Directors. The goals of this article are (1) to analyze to what extent FTOs involve different stakeholders on their boards and (2) to propose some possible factors that could determine the extent of such involvement. In order to investigate these questions, I study the organizations of the Fair Trade sector in Belgium, a country that seems representative of the European Fair Trade sector. Despite a number of methodological limitations, the results show that the legal status and the goal and resource mixes have an influence on stakeholders’ representation on the board. This influence is rather observable in terms of dominance (which types of stakeholders dominate the board?) than in terms of dispersion (how many different types of stakeholders are represented?). The article ends with a proposition of typology of FTOs according to their positioning in terms of both stakeholders’ representation and goal and resource mixes. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 48 (1 ULg) Fondements et implications de la diversité organisationnelle au sein du commerce équitableHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() in Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics = Annales de l'Economie Publique, Sociale et Coopérative (2007), 78(2), 195-218 This article aims to examine the organizational landscape of rapidly growing social innovation: Fair Trade. The author seeks to understand the reasons of the diversity of organizational forms in this ... [more ▼] This article aims to examine the organizational landscape of rapidly growing social innovation: Fair Trade. The author seeks to understand the reasons of the diversity of organizational forms in this sector. The concept of Fair Trade is first decomposed into four types of economic goods. Then, each type of organizational form is examined with regard to the production of these goods. Finally, the author suggests a number of consequences of organizational diversity on the evolution of this sector, focusing on Europe and providing examples from the field of Fair Trade in Belgium. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 74 (3 ULg) Les interactions entre l’économie sociale et la responsabilité sociale des entreprises. Illustration à travers la filière du commerce équitableHuybrechts, Benjamin ; Mertens de Wilmars, Sybille ; Xhauflair, Virginie ![]() in Gestion : Revue Internationale de Gestion (2006), 31(2), 65-74 L’étude de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises (RSE) cherche à analyser les démarches volontaires dans lesquelles des entreprises à but de lucre s'engagent afin de respecter, au-delà de leur ... [more ▼] L’étude de la responsabilité sociale des entreprises (RSE) cherche à analyser les démarches volontaires dans lesquelles des entreprises à but de lucre s'engagent afin de respecter, au-delà de leur objectif de rentabilité économique, des exigences sociales et environnementales, et d’améliorer les relations avec toutes les parties concernées par leurs activités (Bender et Pigeyre, 2003). Ces initiatives rappellent des pratiques à l'œuvre depuis plus d'un siècle dans les organisations d'économie sociale (OES), qui essayent d'atteindre des objectifs sociétaux par le biais d'une activité économique (Defourny et Develtere, 1999). Si, à la suite de Levi (1998), on place les entreprises privées "classiques" et les OES aux extrémités d'un continuum qui s'étendrait de la "performance économique" à la "performance sociétale", on peut émettre l'hypothèse selon laquelle l'apparition de la RSE provoque un double mouvement. D'une part, les entreprises privées recherchent une certaine performance sociétale et, d'autre part, les OES visent davantage de performance économique en adoptant parfois un comportement plus typiquement commercial (Weisbrod, 1998). En conséquence, alors que les rôles respectifs des différentes catégories d’acteurs semblaient clairement définis, les frontières se font à présent plus floues et certains domaines d’activité sont indubitablement témoins d’un rapprochement entre le secteur privé "classique" et le secteur de l'économie sociale. Néanmoins, ces deux ensembles ne semblent pas mus l’un vers l’autre de manière endogène et autonome : au contraire, il y a lieu de penser que les évolutions respectives sont le fruit d’influences réciproques. Notre article a pour but de faire le point sur cette hypothèse de rapprochement, en partant des rôles traditionnels des institutions au sein du système socio-économique et en observant de quelle manière le monde des entreprises et celui de l’économie sociale se sont non seulement rapprochés, mais également influencés réciproquement. Notre réflexion est structurée en trois étapes. Tout d'abord, nous présentons brièvement le contenu que nous associons aux deux concepts principaux sur lesquels repose notre argumentation (l'économie sociale et la RSE) et nous nous basons sur les arguments de la théorie économique institutionnelle pour identifier les atouts respectifs et les rôles traditionnellement dévolus aux grandes catégories d'acteurs dans nos économies. Dans un deuxième temps, nous montrons pourquoi on peut considérer la rencontre entre les OES et les entreprises à but de profit comme un des stimuli du mouvement de RSE et combien ces interactions peuvent potentiellement transformer les comportements de ces deux types d'acteurs. Enfin, nous illustrons notre hypothèse par une analyse des interactions entre OES et entreprises en quête de responsabilité sociale dans la filière du commerce équitable et éthique. Pour ce faire, nous nous basons principalement sur une étude empirique exploratoire menée sur la scène équitable belge et portant sur ces interactions et leurs conséquences en termes de gestion de l’activité économique (Huybrechts et Mertens, 2006). [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 248 (14 ULg) L'impact du commerce équitable sur les producteurs. Le cas de coopératives de café et de cacao en Bolivie.Huybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Master of advanced studies dissertation (2005) Ce travail est le résultat d’une année de recherches sur le thème de l’impact du commerce équitable sur les (organisations de) producteurs et les facteurs d’influence sur cet impact. Une étude de terrain ... [more ▼] Ce travail est le résultat d’une année de recherches sur le thème de l’impact du commerce équitable sur les (organisations de) producteurs et les facteurs d’influence sur cet impact. Une étude de terrain auprès de quatre coopératives de producteurs de café et de cacao en Bolivie a servi de base à cette recherche. Ce pays connaît une effervescence de l’économie sociale et solidaire, à travers les « organisations économiques paysannes », que les réseaux de représentation au niveau national tentent de promouvoir et de pérenniser, entre autres à travers la filière du commerce équitable. Le commerce équitable et son impact sur les producteurs constituent des thèmes relativement nouveaux dans la littérature scientifique. Cette recherche propose une classification de différents domaines d’impacts au niveau de l’organisation puis au niveau du producteur. Ces impacts sont illustrés par les quatre cas, dont deux ne bénéficient pas d’un « partenariat équitable », ce qui permet d’établir certaines comparaisons, dans les limites propres à toute étude de terrain de ce type. L’hypothèse centrale est que le commerce équitable constitue une source de soutien pour les organisations partenaires, mais que la redistribution de ce soutien aux producteurs dépend des mécanismes et des objectifs propres à chacune de ces organisations. L’appui économique et social est donc « reçu » et redirigé différemment d’une organisation à l’autre, de même qu’il est proposé différemment par chaque acteur du Nord. En conséquence, l’étude cherche à mettre en exergue les facteurs, autant du côté des importateurs que des producteurs, qui influencent l’efficacité de la filière équitable par rapport à ses objectifs de développement. [less ▲] Detailed reference viewed: 217 (7 ULg) Etude de la création du partenariat Oxfam-Wereldwinkels & Covica ; lancement en Belgique d’un vin biologique équitable chilienHuybrechts, Benjamin ![]() Master's dissertation (2003) Detailed reference viewed: 36 (1 ULg) |
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